Natural History of Symptomatic Intracranial Arterial Stenosis

Patients who have had a stroke or transitory ischemic attack (TIA) attributed to stenosis (50-99%) of a major intracranial artery face a 12-14% risk of subsequent stroke during the 2-year period after the initial ischemic event, despite treatment with antithrombotic medications. Most of this risk accrues during the first year. Some patients are at substantially greater risk, particularly those with a severe (70-99%) stenosis, those who have recently had an ischemic event, and women. Patients may also be at high risk if they had an initial stroke rather than TIA or if they have symptoms precipitated by hemodynamic maneuvers. The annual risk of subsequent stroke may exceed 20% in these high-risk groups.     

Thrombolysis in patients with acute ischemic stroke due to arterial extracranial dissection

Background and purpose: No data of randomized controlled trials investigating the effect of thrombolysis in patients with ischemic stroke caused by an extracranial dissection are available. Previous case series suggested that thrombolysis in this group of patients is safe and improves outcome, however publication bias may play a role. The purpose of the present study was to describe outcome of consecutive patients with ischemic stroke caused by an extracranial dissection treated with recombinant tissue plasminogen activator (rtPA), derived from a well‐defined ischemic stroke cohort. Methods: All consecutive patients with a transient ischemic attack (TIA) or ischemic stroke admitted to the Academic Medical Center Amsterdam between January 1, 2007 and September 1, 2007 were prospectively registered. Cause of TIA/stroke, treatment, and 6‐months outcome were recorded. Results: During the study period 252 patients were evaluated with TIA or ischemic stroke. Eight patients (3%) had an extracranial dissection. Of the six rtPA treated patients, five had good clinical outcome and one patient died. The two patients who were not treated with rtPA, because of minor stroke, had good clinical outcome 6 months after index event. Discussion: Treatment with rtPA seems to be safe and feasible in ischemic stroke patients with an extracranial dissection.     

Dual Antiplatelet Therapy after Noncardioembolic Ischemic Stroke or Transient Ischemic Attack: Pros and Cons

Dual antiplatelet therapy simultaneously blocks different platelet activation pathways and might thus be more potent at inhibiting platelet activation and more effective at reducing major ischemic vascular events compared to antiplatelet monotherapy. Aspirin plus clopidogrel dual therapy is now the standard therapy for patients with acute coronary syndrome and for those undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention. However, dual antiplatelet therapy carries an increased risk of bleeding. Patients with ischemic stroke or transient ischemic attack (TIA) are generally older and likely to have a fragile cerebrovascular bed, which further increases the risk of systemic major bleeding events and intracranial hemorrhage. Clinical trials and meta-analyses suggest that in comparison to antiplatelet monotherapy, dual antiplatelet therapy initiated early after noncardioembolic ischemic stroke or TIA further reduces the rate of recurrent stroke and major vascular events without significantly increasing the rate of major bleeding events. In contrast, studies of long-term therapy in patients with noncardioembolic ischemic stroke or TIA have yielded inconsistent data regarding the benefit of dual antiplatelet therapy over monotherapy. However, the harm associated with major bleeding events, including intracranial hemorrhage, which is generally more disabling and more fatal than ischemic stroke, is likely to increase with dual antiplatelet therapy. Physicians should carefully assess the benefits and risks of dual antiplatelet therapy versus antiplatelet monotherapy when managing patients with ischemic stroke or TIA.     

Prior transient ischemic attack is independently associated with lesser in‐hospital case fatality in acute stroke

Aim: Ischemic preconditioning has been well established in healthy human hearts, but limited information is available about its occurrence or its integrity in the brain. The aim of the present study was therefore to investigate whether a prior cerebral ischemic episode (stroke or transient ischemic attack [TIA]) is able to confer protection against ischemic stroke, reflected by in‐hospital case fatality. Methods: A total of 2874 acute stroke patients included in the prospective, hospital‐based Debrecen Stroke Database were studied, of whom 673 had previous stroke and 195 had prior TIA. Results: Following adjustment for active confounders, TIA but not stroke in the history was associated with decreased odds for in‐hospital case fatality (odds ratio, 0.53; 95% confidence interval: 0.29–0.98; P = 0.041). The fitness of the final multiple regression model was good (Hosmer–Lemeshow goodness‐of‐fit χ² statistic (P = 0.328). Conclusion: TIA may have an ischemic preconditioning effect in the human brain.     

多发颅内动脉粥样硬化性狭窄对轻型卒中和短暂性脑缺血发作早期卒中复发风险影响研究

目的 探讨多发颅内动脉狭窄对轻型缺血性卒中和TIA早期卒中复发的影响。 方法 纳入氯吡格雷用于急性非致残性脑血管事件高危人群的疗效（Clopidogrel in High -risk Patients with Acute Non-disabling Cerebrovascular Events,CHANCE）研究影像亚组1089例非心源性高危 TIA和轻型缺血性卒中患者。根据患者入院时MRA序列的检查结果分为无颅内动脉狭窄、单发颅内动 脉狭窄和多发颅内动脉狭窄3组。随访患者90 d卒中复发（缺血性和出血性卒中）事件。采用Cox回归 分析多发颅内动脉狭窄对轻型缺血性卒中和TIA患者90 d卒中复发风险的影响。 结果 无颅内动脉狭窄、单发颅内动脉狭窄和多发颅内动脉狭窄组分别有608例、298例和183 例患者;90 d卒中发生风险比例分别为5.43%、9.06%和18.03%。与无颅内动脉狭窄患者相比,伴 有颅内动脉狭窄（包含单发和多发颅内动脉狭窄）患者卒中复发风险显著高于非颅内动脉狭窄患者 （12.50% vs 5.40%,P＜0001）。其中,多发颅内动脉狭窄卒中复发风险最高（18.03%）,是无颅内动脉 狭窄患者的3.578倍（HR 3.578,95%CI 2.189～5.850）。 结论 多发颅内动脉狭窄是非心源性TIA和轻型卒中患者早期卒中复发的独立危险因素。     

Intracranial Artery Calcium Burden Predicts Recurrent Cerebrovascular Events in Transient Ischaemic Attack Patients

Background: Patients with initial transient ischaemic attack (TIA) subsequently have a higher risk of recurrent TIA or acute ischemic stroke (AIS). The role of scoring intracranial arterial calcification (IAC) in predicting the prevalence of stroke remains unclear. We aim to evaluate if radiological CT calcium score measuring IAC burden could predict future ischemic events in a cohort of TIA patients. Methods: We studied consecutive patients from July 2014 to December 2015 who presented with first episode of TIA. All patients had noncontrasted CT or CT-angiogram of the brain on admission. CT calcium score (cm3) was quantified by measuring calcium deposition in the bilateral internal carotid arteries, middle cerebral arteries, and vertebrobasilar system. Patients were followed up for 2 years and ischemic events for either recurrent TIA or AIS were recorded. We compared patients in terms of clinical profile at presentation and CT calcium score using appropriate univariate and multivariable analyses. Results: Of 156 TIA patients studied, 22% (n = 35) had recurrent TIA or AIS within 2 years of follow-up. On univariate analyses, recurrent TIA/AIS was associated with gender (OR 0.61; 95%CI 0.40-0.95; P = .038), hypertension (mean difference 2.49; 95%CI 1.08-5.75; P = .030) and higher CT calcium score (mean difference 0.84 95%CI 0.16-1.52 P = .016). On multivariable logistic regression, a higher CT calcium score was significantly associated with recurrent TIA/AIS (adjusted OR 1.25 95%CI 1.01-1.55 P = .042). Conclusions: In TIA patients, higher IAC burden by measurement of a quantitative CT calcium score may be associated with recurrent ischemic events.     

Burden of Premature Atrial Complexes and Risk of Recurrent Stroke and Death in Patients with Mild to Moderate Ischemic Stroke

BackgroundPremature atrial complexes (PACs) meet increased attention as a potential intermediary between sinus rhythm and atrial fibrillation (AF). Patients with even high numbers of PACs do not fulfill current guidelines for oral anticoagulation treatment though an associated stroke risk is suspected. Objective: We aimed to determine whether a high number of PACs or runs of AF less than 30 seconds in 2-day continuous electrocardiogram (ECG) recording was associated with risk of recurrent ischemic stroke/transient ischemic attack (TIA) or death in a large cohort of patients with acute ischemic stroke or TIA and no prior AF.MethodsWe performed 48 hours continuous ECG recording within 1 week after ischemic stroke/TIA. PACs were reported as mean number of PACs per hour. Patients were followed in Danish Stroke Registry, Danish Civil Registration System, and Danish National Patient Registry. Cox Regression analysis was used to calculate hazard ratios.ResultsWe included 1507 patients with TIA (40%) or ischemic stroke (60%), of which 98.7% had mild to moderate strokes. Mean age was 72.9 (7.8) years, 43.4% were females. Follow-up was 2.3 (1.3) years. Hazard ratio for recurrent stroke/TIA or death did not differ between quartiles of PAC burden, nor did any of the 2 components of this composite endpoint. Nonsustained AF less than 30 seconds was not associated with higher risk of recurrent stroke/TIA or death.ConclusionsIn a large cohort of patients with recent ischemic stroke or TIA, burden of PACs or nonsustained AF less than 30 seconds were not associated to higher risk of recurrent stroke/TIA or death.     

Comparison of primary and secondary stroke prevention in patients with nonvalvular atrial fibrillation: Results from the RAFFINE registry

ObjectivesClinical outcome data of primary and secondary prevention in patients with nonvalvular atrial fibrillation (NVAF) after the introduction of direct oral anticoagulant (DOAC) therapy are limited.Materials and MethodsA subgroup analysis of the RAFFINE registry, an observational, multicenter, prospective registry of Japanese patients with AF, was performed. Incidence rates of stroke or systemic embolism, all-cause death, major bleeding, and intracranial hemorrhage were compared between patients with and without a history of stroke or transient ischemic attack (TIA).ResultsOf 3,706 NVAF patients at baseline, 557 (15.0%) had a history of ischemic stroke or TIA (secondary prevention group), and 3,149 (85.0%) had no history of ischemic stroke or TIA (primary prevention group). The proportion of patients receiving oral anticoagulants was 87.2% (42.5% warfarin, 44.7% DOACs). The secondary prevention group had higher rates of stroke or systemic embolism (2.6% vs 1.0%/year, p<0.001), all-cause death (3.6% vs 2.4%/year, p<0.01), and major bleeding (2.0% vs 1.3%/year, p<0.01), and similar rates of intracranial hemorrhage (0.6% vs 0.5%/year, p=0.66) compared with the primary prevention group. A Cox proportional hazards model showed that a history of ischemic stroke or TIA was independently associated with an increased risk of stroke or systemic embolism (adjusted hazard ratio, 2.22; 95% confidence interval, 1.57 – 3.15; p<0.001).ConclusionsIn a contemporary cohort of NVAF patients, a history of ischemic stroke or TIA was still an independent predictor of stroke or systemic embolism, despite advances in anticoagulation therapy.     

Platelet aggregation in focal cerebral ischemia – a clinical study

In a consecutive series of 35 patients with transient ischemic attacks (TIAs) 26 patients (74%) had pathological platelet aggregation 4 weeks after the latest TIA. Pathological platelet aggregation was the most frequent factor leading to a prophylactic treatment of the TIAs. Among 12 patients with reversible ischemic neurological deficit (RIND) only one had pathological platelet aggregation, and among 54 patients with completed stroke 37% had pathological platelet aggregation 4 weeks after the cerebral infarction.
It is possible by the antiaggregating agents acetylsalicylic acid and dipyridamole to normalize in vitro pathological platelet aggregation. The frequency of side effects was low. During this treatment further TIAs were stopped in 17/19 patients, and remission were seen in 14/14 stroke patients. Compared with the remissions during treatment with anticoagulants there was a tendency of more favouarble outcome in the group of stroke patients when treated with antiaggregating agents.     

缺血性脑血管病二级预防中阿托伐他汀应用分析

目的 了解缺血性脑血管病二级预防中阿托伐他汀的应用情况.方法 对动脉粥样硬化性脑梗死及短暂性缺血发作(TIA)患者479例及其出院6个月随访的422例,调查住院期间及出院6个月时阿托伐他汀的应用情况.结果 住院期间,患者阿托伐他汀钙的使用率为41.5%,脑梗死与TIA患者的使用率无显著统计学差异(40.8%对40.3%, P=0.9411).阿托伐他汀的使用率随基线LDL-C的增高而增高,但达标率呈下降趋势.出院6个月,阿托伐他汀的使用率、达标率分别降至28.7%和38.8%,与住院期间相比均明显降低(P=0.000,P=0.017).结论缺血性脑血管病二级预防中,阿托伐他汀的使用率及达标率均较低,临床实践与指南尚有差距.     

Do antiphospholipid antibodies increase the long‐term risk of thrombotic complications in young patients with a recent TIA or ischemic stroke?

BACKGROUND: The purpose of our study was to determine the relative risk of thrombotic events in young patients with a recent TIA or ischemic stroke and positive antiphospholipid antibodies (aPL). METHODS: We included 128 consecutive patients aged 18-45 years with a recent TIA or ischemic stroke. All patients underwent computed tomography scanning and were screened for cardiovascular risk factors, cardiac disorders and large vessel disease. Lupus anticoagulant (LA) was screened for by an APTT-based assay and a diluted PT-assay. Anticardiolipin antibodies (aCL) were tested by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, using cardiolipin and anti-human IgG and IgM. Thrombotic events could be TIA, stroke, myocardial infarction, deep venous thrombosis or pulmonary embolism. Product limit estimates of the time free of TIA or stroke and of the time free of any thrombotic event were made. The relative risk was estimated by means of a Cox proportional hazards regression model. RESULTS: Of the 128 patients, 22 (17.2%) had aPL. The mean follow-up was 3 years and 3 months (range 41 days to 6 yrs). The incidence of any thrombotic event per 100 patient years of follow-up was 9.0, and the incidence of recurrent stroke or TIA was 7.9. The relative risk of any thrombotic event in patients with aPL was 0.9 (95% CI: 0.3-2.4) and for recurrent ischemic stroke or TIA 0.7 (95% CI: 0.3-2.2). CONCLUSION: In young patients with a recent TIA or ischemic stroke, aPL do not seem to be a strong risk factor for recurrent stroke or TIA, nor for other thrombotic complications.     

ABCD~2评分法对短暂脑缺血发作患者的卒中风险分析

目的探讨ABCD~2评分法对短暂脑缺血发作(TIA)患者短期内进展为脑梗死的预测价值。方法按照Johnston等[4-6]对TIA的ABCD~2评分标准,测定98例TIA患者的评分并危险分组,观察其2、7d内脑梗死的发生率,比较各危险组之间卒中率的差异,分析ABCD~2评分中预测因子的作用。结果评分≤3分的TIA患者有40例,2、7d发生脑梗死的例数分别为0例(0%)、2例(5%);评分为4~5分的患者46例2、7d进展为脑梗死的例数分别为4例(8.7%)、11例(23%);评分≥6分的患者12例2、7d进展为脑梗死的例数分别为3例(25%)、4例(33.3%),不同ABCD~2评分值的TIA患者,其脑梗死发生率差异有统计学意义(P0.05);ABCD~2评分中的各预测因子Logistic回归分析症状持续时间≥10min及具有局灶体征可以进入回归方程,以此建立的回归方程有效性差异有统计学意义(P=0.000)。结论 ABCD~2评分能够预测TIA患者2、7d内卒中发生率,是临床预测TIA短期进展为脑梗死的一种简便、有效的方法。ABCD~2评分值不同的TIA患者,脑梗死的发生率不同,分值越高,发生率越高;ABCD~2评分中的卒中预测因子,最重要的是局灶体征及症状持续时间萁次为年龄、糖尿病等。     

Urgent Recanalization with Stenting for Severe Intracranial Atherosclerosis after Transient Ischemic Attack or Minor Stroke

Objective

Stenting of symptomatic intracranial stenosis has recently become an alternative treatment modality. However, urgent intracranial stenting in patients with intracranial stenosis following a transient ischemic attack (TIA) or minor stroke is open to dispute. We sought to assess the feasibility, safety, and effectiveness of urgent intracranial stenting for severe stenosis (>70%) in TIA or minor stroke patients.

Methods

Between June 2009 and October 2010, stent-assisted angioplasty by using a balloon-expandable coronary stent for intracranial severe stenosis (>70%) was performed in 7 patients after TIA and 5 patients after minor stroke (14 stenotic lesions). Technical success rates, complications, angiographic findings, and clinical outcomes were retrospectively analyzed.

Results

Stenting was successful in all 12 patients. The mean time from symptom onset to stenting was 2.1 days (1-8 days). Post-procedural angiography showed restoration to a normal luminal diameter in all patients. In-stent thrombosis occurred in one patient (n=1, 8.3%), and was lysed with abciximab. No device-related complications, such as perforations or dissections at the target arteries or intracranial hemorrhaging, occurred in any patient. The mortality rate was 0%. No patient had an ischemic event over the mean follow-up period of 12.5 months (range, 7-21 months), and follow-up angiography (n=7) revealed no significant in-stent restenosis (>50%).

Conclusion

Urgent recanalization with stenting is feasible, safe, and effective in patients with TIA or acute minor stroke with intracranial stenosis of ≥70%.     

Transient ischemic attack with infarction: A unique syndrome?

It is debated whether transient symptoms associated with infarction (TSI) are best considered a minor ischemic stroke, a subtype of transient ischemic attack (TIA), or a separate ischemic brain syndrome. We studied clinical and imaging features to establish similarities and differences among ischemic stroke, TIA without infarction, and TSI. Eighty-seven consecutive patients with TIA and 74 patients with ischemic stroke were studied. All underwent diffusion-weighted imaging on admission. Symptom duration and infarct volume were determined in each group. Thirty-six patients (41.3%) with TIA had acute infarct(s). Although TIA-related infarcts were smaller than those associated with ischemic stroke (mean, 0.7 vs 27.3 ml; p < 0.001), there was no lesion size threshold that distinguished ischemic stroke from TSI. In contrast, the symptom duration probability density curve was not broad, but instead peaked early with only a few patients having symptoms for longer than 200 minutes. The probability density function for symptom duration was similar between TIA with or without infarction. The in-hospital recurrent ischemic stroke and TIA rate was 19.4% in patients with TSI and 1.3% in those with ischemic stroke. TIA with infarction appears to have unique features separate from TIA without infarction and ischemic stroke. We propose identifying TSI as a separate clinical syndrome with distinct prognostic features.     

70例脑动脉夹层患者临床特点分析

目的分析脑动脉夹层住院患者的临床特点,促进对脑动脉夹层的早期识别、早期诊断和治疗。方法回顾性分析首都医科大学附属北京天坛医院神经内科及神经介入科2014年12月~2015年4月经全脑血管造影或高分辨磁共振成像诊断的脑动脉夹层患者的临床特点、影像学特点及治疗措施的情况。结果共纳入70例脑动脉夹层患者。平均年龄(50.0±12.8)岁,男性52例(74%),女性18例(26%)。颈动脉颅外段夹层21例(30%),椎动脉段夹层30例(43%),基底动脉夹层15例(21%),大脑中动脉水平段夹层1例(1%),侧裂段夹层1例(1%)。大脑后动脉及锁骨下动脉夹层各1例(1%)。非蛛网膜下腔出血性头痛19例(27%),头晕3例(4%),颈痛11例(16%),缺血性卒中16例(23%),蛛网膜下腔出血5例(7%),短暂性脑缺血发作4例(6%),其中3例经检查后发现缺血性卒中,无症状者19例(27%)。1例同时存在头痛和颈痛。3例患者同时存在缺血性卒中和头痛,1例患者同时存在颈痛、短暂性脑缺血发作和缺血性卒中。动脉夹层的影像学特征主要表现为动脉局部瘤样扩张、内膜瓣、动脉壁内新月形高信号征等。接受抗栓治疗者9例(13%),单纯抗凝治疗2例(3%),支架辅助弹簧圈填塞17例(24%),单纯弹簧圈填塞5例(7%),单纯支架治疗11例(16%),抗凝结合支架治疗者1例(1%),没有治疗者23例(33%),死亡2例(3%)。结论脑动脉夹层的患者临床症状表现形式不同,轻症者可无症状,或单纯头颈痛,重症者可表现为短暂性脑缺血发作、缺血性卒中或蛛网膜下腔出血,正确诊断和相应的治疗十分重要。     

非致残性缺血性脑血管事件的流行病学及预后

非致残性缺血性脑血管事件（non-disabling ischemic cerebrovascular events,NICE）包括短暂 性脑缺血发作（transient ischemic attack,TIA）与轻型卒中,在全部缺血性脑血管病中的比例及其流行 病学趋势逐年升高。NICE早期复发风险高,且存在低知晓率、低诊疗率、低住院率的问题。因此,进 一步改进TIA的定义,制定预防早期卒中的最佳策略显得尤为重要。近年来,随着人们对TIA和轻型卒 中认识的深入以及医疗水平的提高,TIA的发病率及卒中复发风险在发达国家存在下降的趋势。     

Symptom spread to contiguous body parts as a presentation of cerebral ischemia

BACKGROUND: Ischemic stroke commonly presents with sudden onset of focal deficit that is maximal at onset. Symptom onset marked by the spread of symptoms to contiguous body parts may suggest migraine, seizure or cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA) that is mimicking ischemic symptoms. OBJECTIVE: To assess (1) if the spread of symptoms to contiguous body parts is an uncommon presentation of ischemic stroke and transient ischemic attack (TIA) and (2) if patients presenting with this symptom complex frequently have migraine, seizure or CAA mimicking stroke or TIA. METHODS: 110 consecutive patients presenting with stroke-like symptoms were prospectively evaluated for symptoms at onset, abnormalities on cerebral imaging, risk factors for stroke, discharge diagnosis, and development of subsequent TIA/stroke, migraine, seizure, or cerebral hemorrhage during follow-up. RESULTS: Of patients able to give a history of symptoms at onset, 23% described symptoms spreading to contiguous body parts. None had a history of migraine or seizure. None had clinical course or imaging features typical of CAA. During follow-up, 1 was diagnosed with migrainous stroke and none had suffered seizure or intracranial hemorrhage. CONCLUSIONS: The spread of symptoms to contiguous body parts is not uncommon at the onset of ischemic TIA/stroke. In our series, migrainous stroke was much less common and none had evidence of seizure or CAA.     

The association between high on-treatment platelet reactivity and early recurrence of ischemic events after minor stroke or TIA

Objectives: To evaluate the role of HTPR in predicting early recurrence of ischemic events in patients with minor ischemic stroke or high-risk TIA.

Methods: From January 2014 to September 2014, a single center continuously enrolled patients with minor ischemic stroke or high-risk TIA and gave them antiplatelet therapy consisting of aspirin with clopidogrel. HTPR was assessed by TEG after 7 days of antiplatelet therapy and detected CYP2C19 genotype. The incidence of recurrent ischemic events was assessed 3 months after onset. The incidence of recurrent ischemic events was compared between the HTPR and NTPR groups with the Kaplan-Meier method, and multivariate Cox proportional hazards models were used to determine the risk factors associated with recurrent ischemic events.

Results: We enrolled 278 eligible patients with minor ischemic stroke or high-risk TIA. Through TEG testing, patients with HTPR were 22.7%, and carriers were not associated with HTPR to ADP by TEG-ADP(%) (p = 0.193). A total of 265 patients completed 3 months of follow-up, and Kaplan-Meier analysis showed that patients with HTPR had a higher percentage of recurrent ischemic events compared with patients with NTPR (p = 0.002). In multivariate Cox proportional hazards models, history of ischemic stroke or TIA (HR 4.45, 95% CI 1.77–11.16, p = 0.001) and HTPR (HR 3.34, 95% CI 1.41–7.91, p = 0.006) was independently associated with recurrent ischemic events.

Discussion: In patients with minor stroke or TIA, the prevalence of HTPR was 22.7%, and HTPR was independently associated with recurrent ischemic events.     

Antiphospholipid antibodies and cerebral ischemia in young people

The importance of a prothrombotic state as a cause of ischemic stroke in young adults is ill defined. We examined 46 unselected patients under age 50 years with cerebral ischemia for anticardiolipin antibody (aCL) and lupus anticoagulants (LA), over a 3-year-period. Age- and sex-matched patients with other neurologic diseases served as a noncerebral ischemia comparison group to test whether (1) stroke/transient ischemic attacks (TIA) in young people is associated with aCL and/or LA, and (2) their presence is specific to cerebral ischemia. In the stroke/TIA group, 21 patients had aCL or LA and 25 had neither, whereas in the control group, 2 patients had aCL and 24 had neither. Equal numbers of stroke/TIA patients with and without antiphospholipid antibodies (aPL) had other stroke risk factors. Patients with aPL and cerebral ischemia, however, had a more frequent history of multiple events than those without them. These antibodies occur with undue frequency in young patients with stroke/TIA and are not associated with a concurrent diagnosis of systemic lupus in most cases. A coexistent aPL-associated prothrombotic state may be a key determinant of whether patients with atherosclerosis, mitral valve prolapse, or other structural lesions experience recurrent ischemia.