A survey of parental opinions on corporal punishment in schools

Forty-three states permit corporal punishment in schools. This practice continues despite the universal opposition of professional organizations, including the American Academy of Pediatrics. This study determines parental attitudes concerning the use of physical punishment in schools. The surveyed sample is drawn from parents of military dependents who brought their children to this clinic for routine physical examinations. One hundred and twenty-nine of 132 questionnaires were returned for a 98% response rate. Fifty-one percent of the parents supported the use of corporal punishment in schools, 37% disagreed (77% of these strongly), 11% had no opinion, and 1% did not respond to the question. Analysis of the responses displayed a relationship between parental attitudes on the use of corporal punishment and opinion of the positive effects of physical punishment on children's behavior (p less than 0.0001). No relationship was found between position on corporal punishment and the respondent (mother, father, or both), the age of parents, the military rank of the sponsor (the individual whose military service makes the child eligible for military medical care, i.e., father, mother, guardian, etc.), the sex of the children, the marital status of the parents, or the schools attended by the children (public or private). Thirty-four percent of parents believed corporal punishment would improve behavior, and 20% of parents felt that physical punishment would improve their child's academic performance.     

大中专学生儿童期教师体罚经历回顾性调查研究

目的了解大中专学生儿童期被教师体罚经历,探讨教师体罚学生的影响因素及儿童期教师体罚经历与青少年心理问题的关联。方法对河北1所大学和1所中专的528名在校学生就有关儿童期虐待经历进行回顾性不记名自填式问卷调查。结果57．6％（304／528）的学生报告16岁前受到至少1次下列5项中的1项来自学校教师的体罚：非身体接触体罚53．4％（282／528）、徒手打16．1％（85／528）、用物品打10．2％（54／528）、限制活动0．2％（1／528）,没有学生报告教师曾使其窒息／烧烫／刺伤。与没有教师体罚经历的学生相比,儿童期有2项或2项以上教师体罚经历的学生其SCL-90量表中躯体症状、强迫症状、人际关系敏感、抑郁、焦虑、敌对、偏执、精神病性症状等因子均分和总均分均明显偏高;在过去1年里出现严重忧郁情绪、饮酒醉过、参与或卷入打架斗殴的比例以及目前吸烟等的发生率偏高。结论儿童被教师体罚现象较普遍。儿童期教师体罚经历与青少年心理问题显著相关。急需提高公众对儿童权利的意识,学校要为儿童营造一个友好的学习环境。     

On Hitting Children: A Review of Corporal Punishment in the United States

Research has clearly demonstrated associations between corporal punishment of children and maladaptive behavior patterns such as aggression and delinquency. Hitting children is an act of violence and a clear violation of children's human rights. In this article, the position of the United States on corporal punishment of children is discussed. Professional and international progress on ending corporal punishment is explained, and the relationship between corporal punishment and child abuse is discussed. An appeal is made for prevention efforts such as parent education and removal of social sanctions for hitting children that may hold significant promise for preventing child maltreatment.     

Corporal punishment and the growth trajectory of children's antisocial behavior

Despite considerable research, the relationship between corporal punishment and antisocial behavior is unclear. This analysis examined (a) the functional form of this relationship, (b) the correlation of initial antisocial behavior and changes in antisocial behavior, (c) differences in the relationship of corporal punishment and antisocial behavior by race, and (d) whether this relationship could be accounted for by unmeasured characteristics of children and their families. Data from 6,912 children in the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth were analyzed using hierarchical linear models. Findings suggested that corporal punishment has a relationship with children's initial antisocial behavior and with changes in antisocial behavior. No evidence was found for differences in the effect of corporal punishment across racial groups. The relationship between corporal punishment and antisocial behavior persists even when accounting for unmeasured time invariant characteristics of children and families. The findings suggest that corporal punishment is not a preferable technique for disciplining children.     

The Likelihood of Using Corporal Punishment by Kindergarten Teachers: The Role of Parent-Teacher Partnership,Attitudes, and Religiosity

This study explores the likelihood of Arab kindergarten teachers from Israel using corporal punishment with children who misbehave while in their care. The study focuses on teachers’ characteristics, child-staff ratio, and the quality of parent-teacher relationships, in order to expand our understanding of the mechanisms underlying disciplinary choices. A stratified sample method was used to design a representative sample of Arab kindergarten teachers in Israel. Anonymous, structured, self-report questionnaires were completed by 86 kindergarten teachers who mailed them back to the researchers in sealed envelopes. More than a quarter of the teachers (27.9 %) reported that they are likely to use at least one of the corporal punishment acts listed in the questionnaire with children when they misbehave. The parent-teacher relationship was associated negatively with teachers’ use of corporal punishment. Greater religiosity and stronger attitudes supporting the use of corporal punishment to handle behavioral problems were associated with more reports of kindergarten teachers being likely to use corporal punishment. The relationship between religiosity and use of corporal punishment was mediated by teachers’ favorable attitudes towards the use of corporal punishment to discipline children. Future research should be conducted to investigate additional teacher, child, and kindergarten factors that might help predicting victimization of kindergarten children by their teachers.     

Associations between Arab Mothers’ Self-Efficacy and Parenting Attitudes and their children’s Externalizing and Internalizing Behaviors: Gender Differences and the Mediating Role of Corporal Punishment

In this study we examined the association between Arab mothers’ self-efficacy and parenting attitudes and their children’s internalizing and externalizing behaviors, and whether these associations are mediated by the use of corporal punishment. Further, we examined whether the child’s gender moderates these associations. We included 2380 mothers of kindergartners who answered a questionnaire assessing levels of self-efficacy, attitudes on corporal punishment, use of corporal punishment, and their children’s internalizing and externalizing behaviors. Using structural equation modeling we tested for the mediation by corporal punishment of the association between self-efficacy, attitudes on corporal punishment and children’s behaviors. We further tested possible moderation by gender of the model. Results supported the hypothesized mediation effect of corporal punishment. Results suggest that mothers’ low self-efficacy and attitudes supporting corporal punishment were associated with elevated likelihood of use of corporal punishment which, in turn was associated with elevated levels of child’s internalizing and externalizing behaviors. No moderation by gender of this pathway was found, suggesting that boys and girls react similarly to the use of corporal punishment by their mothers. Interventions aimed at helping Arab mothers understand the impact of their behavior and guide them toward effective disciplinary strategies are suggested.     

儿童期躯体情感虐待经历对大学生心理健康的影响

目的：探讨儿童期躯体情感虐待经历对大学生心理健康的影响。方法：对西安1 200名大学生就儿童期躯体情感虐待经历进行儿童虐待史问卷（Bernstein）（修订后）及症状自评量表 (Symptom Check List-90,SCL-90)进行不记名调查。结果：668名学生（55.7%）16岁前曾经历过羞辱、体罚、挨打或限制活动等躯体情感虐待,其中21.0%有过挨打 (包括用器械打)的经历。儿童期有严重躯体情感虐待经历的学生,其躯体症状、强迫症状、人际关系敏感、抑郁、焦虑、敌对、恐怖、偏执等症状因子分≥ 1的检出率明显高于无躯体情感虐待经历的学生。结论：中国儿童期羞辱、体罚等躯体情感虐待问题仍较常见,而且儿童期严重躯体情感虐待经历直接会影响到大学生心理健康,应该重视儿童虐待的干预及研究。［中国当代儿科杂志,2009,11（8）：675-678］     

Physical punishment of children: Can we continue to accept the status quo?

All children require discipline, although physical punishment is just one form of discipline. Parental use of physical punishment is inter-generational. There is now evidence that physical punishment of children is not only less effective than other forms of discipline but can also lead to aggressive behaviour in childhood and adult life. Twenty-nine countries, including New Zealand, have laws against physical punishment in the home. Australian attitudes are slowly changing in favour of less use of physical punishment, but there is a long way to go. As advocates for children, paediatricians should not be content to accept the status quo.     

Relationship of corporal punishment and antisocial behavior by neighborhood

OBJECTIVES: To examine the relationship of corporal punishment with children's behavior problems while accounting for neighborhood context and while using stronger statistical methods than previous literature in this area, and to examine whether different levels of corporal punishment have different effects in different neighborhood contexts. DESIGN: Longitudinal cohort study. SETTING: General community. PARTICIPANTS: 1943 mother-child pairs from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Internalizing and externalizing behavior problem scales of the Behavior Problems Index. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: Parental use of corporal punishment was associated with a 0.71 increase (P<.05) in children's externalizing behavior problems even when several parenting behaviors, neighborhood quality, and all time-invariant variables were accounted for. The association of corporal punishment and children's externalizing behavior problems was not dependent on neighborhood context. The research found no discernible relationship between corporal punishment and internalizing behavior problems.     

Physical punishment, culture, and rights: current issues for professionals

Once considered a legitimate parenting tool, physical punishment is increasingly being redefined as a developmental risk factor by health professionals. Three forces that have contributed to this significant social change are the evolution of pediatric psychology, increasing understanding of the dynamics of parental violence, and growing recognition of children as rights bearers. However, despite the consistency of research findings demonstrating the risks of physical punishment, some practitioners still struggle with the question of whether physical punishment is an appropriate practice among some cultural or ethnic groups. This issue is explored through an analysis of studies examining cultural differences and similarities in physical punishment's effects, as well as legal decisions made throughout the world. Despite practitioners' awareness of the prevalence and impact of parental violence, some still struggle with deciding where to "draw the line" in advising parents about spanking. This issue is addressed through an examination of the role that physical punishment plays in child maltreatment. Finally, the human rights perspective on physical punishment is offered as a new lens through which practitioners may view physical punishment to clarify the fuzzy issues of cultural relativity and the punishment-abuse dichotomy.     

Sensitivity to interference and response contingencies in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder

BACKGROUND: Current theories on ADHD suggest executive and motivational deficits, but it remains unclear whether these are separate deficits or a unitary deficit. METHOD: ADHD children and matched controls performed on a hybrid disjunctive-choice reaction time task in which target stimuli could be surrounded by flankers signaling either the appropriate response, the competing response, or response inhibition. The task was performed under three conditions; reward only, reward and occasional punishment, and equal probability of reward and punishment. Heart rate and skin conductance measures were taken during task performance. RESULTS: Contrary to control children, ADHD children slowed their responses when flankers cueing the appropriate response surrounded the stimulus. Flankers cueing incorrect responses further slowed ADHD children relative to control children. ADHD children also responded less accurately under the threat of punishment. Phasic heart rate did not differ between groups, but immediate reward feedback induced greater heart rate responses in control than in ADHD children. Contrary to expectations, groups did not differ in skin conductance responses. CONCLUSIONS: ADHD children appear deficient in approach tendencies in the presence of imminent reward, rather than unresponsive to punishment or negative feedback. Executive inhibition and motivational inhibition seemed to exert separate effects on behavior of children with ADHD.     

Ethnicity, income, and parenting contexts of physical punishment in a national sample of families with young children

Nearly half of U.S. parents use physical punishment for child discipline. Although some studies relate physical punishment and later dysfunction, others suggest that its effects depend on the context in which it is used. The authors analyzed data from the Commonwealth Fund Survey of Parents With Young Children, a national sample of 2,017 parents with children younger than 3. Parents reported their use of spanking, five other disciplinary practices, and four nurturing interactions. The authors used cluster analysis to define four groups of parents with distinct patterns of discipline and nurturing. Two groups with above-average use of spanking shared a high prevalence of parent depressive symptoms and a low level of nurturing but had markedly different demographic profiles and use of nonphysical punishment. Parents who used average levels of spanking made frequent use of nonphysical disciplinary strategies and had high levels of nurturing interactions. Parents who reported below-average spanking had relatively low levels of both disciplinary and nurturing interactions.     

Physical punishment: Sanctioned violence against children

Australian society continues to support physical punishment of children and is currently conducting a Royal Commission unto violence against children in custody. By contrast, New Zealand has banned physical punishment of children. Australian society needs to address this issue.     

Corporal punishment and child maltreatment in New Zealand

On 2 May, 2007, the New Zealand Parliament passed a law repealing Section 59 of the Crimes Act. In so doing, New Zealand became the first English‐speaking nation in the world to make corporal punishment of a child illegal. The passage of this legislation was surrounded by intense and persistent public debate, and supporters of corporal punishment continue to advocate against the law change to the present day. In Sweden, where the first stage of similar repeal took place in 1957, it may be difficult for many to understand the strength of the public opposition to this change in New Zealand. This article will present a viewpoint on the evolution of the debate in New Zealand, review the wider context of child maltreatment and family violence in New Zealand and summarize a range of attempts to prevent or intervene effectively in the cycle of dysfunction. Conclusion: Child maltreatment and family violence are public health issues of great importance, and a stain on all societies. While corporal punishment may be a significant contributing factor, there is no single ‘solution’. Change must occur on multiple levels (political, economic, cultural, familial and professional) before the tide will turn.     

Corporal punishment: a discussion of the debate

The use of corporal punishment (CP) is controversial. Many believe that physical punishment, when used appropriately, can be an effective form of discipline, despite the studies which show CP to be associated with unwanted behavioural outcomes. This article summarises the debate around CP, particularly focusing on two aspects of the debate often ignored; the importance of the interaction between parent and child and cultural aspects of discipline.     

儿童个性特征与其父母养育方式的相关性

目的：探讨儿童个性与父母养育方式的相关性。方法：抽取某中学一年级283名学生，采用父母养育方式评价量表和艾森克个性问卷（儿童版）对其中279名有效问卷进行独立样本t检验、Pearson相关分析。结果：儿童人格中精神病倾向与父母亲的惩罚、严厉、过分干涉、拒绝、否认及父亲过度保护呈显著正相关，与情感温暖因子呈负相关。内、外向与父母亲情感温暖、偏爱被试呈显著正相关。神经质与父母亲的惩罚、严厉、过分干涉及母亲偏爱被试呈显著正相关，与情感温暖呈显著负相关。掩饰度与父母亲情感温暖呈显著正相关，与惩罚、严厉、拒绝及母亲的过度干涉呈显著负相关。结论：父母的养育方式与儿童的个性密切相关，提示父母的养育方式对其子女人格形成有重要影响。     

Associations among distorted cognitions and hypothetical parenting responses prior to parenthood

Using path analytic methods, the present study used two social-cognitive models of maladaptive parenting to predict endorsements of child punishment in a sample of 101 young adults who had not yet become parents. Participants completed paper-and-pencil measures of expectations, attributions, current aggression, and responses to vignettes about child rearing and social situations. Results suggest that working models of parent-child relationships are related in predictable ways to endorsements of cognitive and behavioral responses toward children in vignettes, even in adults who are not yet parents. An extended model of maladaptive parenting that included beliefs and behaviors regarding current peer relationships was not validated. Gender moderated the influence of past punishment on level of unrealistic expectations about children and the influence of current peer aggression on endorsements of child punishment. Implications of gender differences in predictors and directions forfuture research are discussed.     

Advocacy and the paediatrician

Advocacy means speaking out for the disempowered. It is as important a skill for paediatricians as communication but is less well taught. Advocacy applies to the paediatrician’s everyday work with child patients and also to the field of prevention in relation to a population of children. Paediatricians are powerful advocates because of their position and their perceived lack of bias, and they have ready access to those in positions of power.Advocacy has a long history in paediatrics and examples are given from the UK and USA. Its underpinning principles are drawn from the UN Convention on the rights of the child, which requires states to offer provision, protection and participation to children and young people. Its articles provide guidance on the scope of advocacy. Current issues requiring advocacy in the UK include special needs children in the education system, adolescents in hospital and outpatients, corporal punishment in the home, and child mental health and violence against children.Advocacy must be integrated into paediatric training as it is likely to be required even more in the future as services become more complex.     

注意缺陷多动障碍儿童父母养育方式调查

目的分析注意缺陷多动障碍(ADHD)儿童的行为特征及父母养育态度和行为特征,探讨其临床干预方式。方法采用Conners父母问卷(PSQ)和父母养育方式评价量表(EMBU),对146例6～15岁ADHD儿童及父母进行问卷调查分析。结果与常模对比,ADHD儿童在品行问题、学习问题、心身障碍、冲动-多动、焦虑和多动指数6个因子差异有统计学意义(P<0.01);ADHD家庭父亲在养育过程中的情感温暖、理解,惩罚、严厉,偏爱被试,拒绝、否认,过度保护5个因子差异有统计学意义(P<0.01);母亲在养育过程中情感温暖、理解,拒绝、否认,惩罚、严厉和偏爱被试4个因子差异有统计学意义(P<0.01)。结论 ADHD儿童的父母存在不恰当的养育态度和行为,提示对ADHD儿童应根据个体情况给予药物治疗、心理干预和父母不良教养方式纠正等临床综合治疗。