肾癌不同病理亚型的MRI特点

目的探讨肾癌不同病理亚型的MRI表现。方法回顾性分析了2009年1月至2013年6月本中心收治的47例肾癌病例,所有病例均经MRI检查,术后病理确诊为肾细胞癌。以正常肾皮质信号强度为标准,采用目测法比较总结各病例的MRI特点。用SPSS 13.0统计软件,以P=0.05为标准进行卡方分析。结果肾透明细胞癌T1WI增强序列强化幅度明显高于其他两个亚型,且具有明显的"快进快出"的特点,有统计学意义(P0.05)。而肾乳头状细胞癌与肾嫌色细胞癌的T1WI增强序列图像无明显差异(P0.05)。肾透明细胞癌及肾乳头状细胞癌的化学位移图像中反相位图像部分区域较同相位图像有所降低,而肾嫌色细胞癌无此特点,有统计学意义(P0.05)。三种肿瘤均在DWI及ADC图像上呈略高信号,无明显差异(P0.05)。结论 MRI对鉴别肾透明细胞癌、乳头状肾细胞癌、肾嫌色细胞癌均有一定的参考价值,其中增强序列是鉴别肾透明细胞癌和乳头状肾细胞癌及肾嫌色细胞癌的重要参数。而通过化学位移成像能较好地鉴别肾嫌色细胞癌与肾透明细胞癌及肾乳头状细胞癌。     

乳头状肾细胞癌临床分析

目的：总结分析乳头状肾细胞癌的临床特点,提高其诊治水平.方法：回顾性分析2003～2009年收治的乳头状肾细胞癌的临床资料.并与同期53例肾透明细胞癌比较.结果：乳头状肾细胞癌组患者年龄57.3（47～78）岁,皆为男性,占同期肾细胞癌9.4%.就诊时3例无症状,2例出现肉眼血尿,1例双侧腰痛伴腹部包块.肿瘤平均最大径为6.6（2.6～16.0）cm,未见多中心病灶.TNM分期：T1a N0 M0 3例,T1b N0 M0 1例,T2 No M0 2例 病理分型I型3例,Ⅱ型3例 Fuhrman分级Ⅱ级2例,Ⅲ级4例.与肾透明细胞癌相比,乳头状肾细胞癌好发于男性,影像学检查不具备恶性肿瘤特征,确诊有赖于病理和免疫组织化学检查.临床分期皆为I期或Ⅱ期.就诊时无一例出现远处转移.结论：乳头状肾细胞癌在临床表现上与肾透明细胞癌相似,但在影像学表现、病理形态及生物学行为上均与肾透明细胞癌有所不同.根治性肾切除术是目前首选治疗方式.靶向治疗有可能成为转移性乳头状肾细胞癌治疗的新方向.     

不同肾细胞癌亚型临床病理学特征比较

目的 探讨不同肾细胞癌(RCC)亚型临床病理学特征差异.方法 对比不同RCC亚型基本临床特征、大体表现、Fuhman细胞核分级、侵犯情况、TNM分期以及预后.结果 在所有RCC中,透明细胞癌占88.5％ (718/809),乳头状癌占4.1％(33/809),嫌色细胞癌占1.7％ (14/809),囊性肾细胞癌占3.1％(25/809),未分类癌占2.2％ (18/809),其他类型占0.4％(3/809);上述类型Fuhman细胞核分级中3级分别占16.1％、48.5％、42.9％、8.0％、16.7％以及0.0％;肾盂侵犯分别占44.4％、10.3％、27.0％、0.0％、0.0％以及0.0％;肾周脂肪侵犯分别占11.8％、11.5％、33.3％、0.0％、44.4％以及33.3％;淋巴结转移分别占0.9％、19.2％、0.0％、6.3％、27.8％以及33.3％;远处转移分别占2.3％、7.6％、0.0％、6.3％、16.7％以及0.0％;3年肿瘤特异性生存率分别为92.1％、100.0％、100.0％、100.0％、61.5％以及100.0％.结论 透明细胞癌是最常见的病理学亚型.未分类癌是预后最差的亚型,而囊性肾细胞癌预后最好.乳头状癌和嫌色细胞癌细胞核分级较高,且肾盂和肾周脂肪侵犯较常见.     

间隙连接蛋白43在肾细胞癌中的表达及意义

目的:探讨间隙连接蛋白Cx43在肾细胞癌(RCC)中的表达及其与RCC生物学行为之间的关系.方法:应用S-P免疫组织化学法检测Cx43蛋白在41例RCC,12例癌旁肾组织及10例正常肾组织中的表达情况.结果:Cx43阳性染色主要定位在细胞膜和细胞质上.Cx43蛋白在RCC中的阳性表达率明显低于在癌旁肾及正常肾组织的水平(P＜ 0.01);在透明细胞癌、颗粒细胞癌、梭形细胞癌中,其阳性表达率比较差异无统计学意义(P＞ 0.05);随着临床分期的增高,其阳性率明显下降(P＜ 0.05),并与RCC转移呈负相关(Spearman 等级相关系数r=- 0.483, P＜ 0.01);与肿瘤大小无明显关系(P＞ 0.05).结论:Cx43对RCC发生和转移有明显抑制作用,其表达减弱或消失可能与RCC的发生和发展密切相关.     

肾癌亚型MRI表现与病理特点的相关性分析

目的探讨肾细胞癌亚型的MRI特点。方法经手术切除并病理证实的肾癌患者234例（244灶）。男167例,女67例。年龄24～78岁,中位年龄53．5岁。肿瘤最大径0．8～20．0cm,平均6．2cm。TNM分期T1 135例（57．7％）、T2 41例（17．5％）、T3 31例（13．2％）、T4 27例（11．5％）。结合病理改变回顾性分析其MRI表现特点。结果透明细胞癌199例（209灶）,MRI表现为平扫不均匀信号（90．0％）及不均匀中、重度强化（88．4％）,病理表现主要为出血（27．8％）、坏死（46．4％）及囊性改变（23．9％）。乳头状肾细胞癌10例（灶）,平扫信号不均匀（90．0％）,增强扫描轻度（60．0％）强化,90．0％强化不均匀;内部可见囊变（50．0％）、出血（70．0％）。嫌色细胞癌13例（灶）,平扫信号较均匀（69．2％）,增强扫描多为均匀信号（66．7％）及轻度强化（91．7％）,出血、坏死及囊性改变少见。未分类型12例（灶）,呈不均匀信号及强化（83．3％）。结论肾癌各亚型MRI表现及病理改变有一定差异,嫌色细胞癌多为较均匀信号及轻度强化,乳头状癌多表现为不均匀信号及轻度强化,易囊变及出血,透明细胞癌与未分类型多为不均匀信号及中重度强化。肾癌MRI表现及病理特点对肾癌亚型的诊断与鉴别诊断有一定意义。     

肾细胞癌271例临床分析

目的 探讨肾细胞癌的诊治方法.方法 1993年1月至2000年12月共收治肾细胞癌患者271例,对诊断方法、治疗手段、随访及预后进行回顾性分析.结果 B超、CT仍为主要的诊断方法.手术治疗234例患者,其中行根治性肾切除术197例(72.6%),保留肾单位手术19例;转移瘤切除术6例;其他手术12例.病理结果:透明细胞癌137例,占61.4%(137/223)、颗粒细胞癌18例(8.1%)、混合细胞癌32例(14.3%)、乳头状腺癌23例(10.3%),其他13例.210例患者(77.5%)获得随访.1、3、5、10年生存率分别为95.3%(182/191)、88.7%(107/122)、74.7%(56/75)和32.1%(10/31).结论 B超是检测肾细胞癌的首选检查方法,CT为最有价值诊断方法.提高肾细胞癌远期生存率最关键的因素是早期发现、早期行肾癌根治术或保留肾单位的肾癌切除术.     

多房囊性肾细胞癌手术治疗的预后特点分析

目的探讨多房囊性肾细胞癌患者手术治疗的预后特点。方法回顾性分析482例肾癌患者中22例多房囊性肾细胞癌患者资料，分析其手术治疗的预后特点。多房囊性肾细胞癌占同期肾癌病例的4．56％，男女比例为2．67：1．00，年龄32～74岁，平均47岁。结果22例患者中行肾癌根治术18例，行肾部分切除术4例。肿瘤直径1．8～11．0cm，平均4．8cm。其中透明细胞癌21例，透明细胞癌与颗粒细胞癌混合型1例；pT1N0M019例，pT2N0M02例；pT3bN0M01例；G15例，G217例。失访2例，20例获随访，随访时间9～56个月，平均27．6个月。其中1例因肝硬化、上消化道出血死亡，无瘤存活21例。结论多房囊性肾癌是肾癌的一种特殊类型，多为肾偶发癌，病理分期分级低，预后与肿瘤大小无关，手术治疗效果满意，预后佳。     

肾细胞癌的外科治疗(附148例报告)

目的:探讨肾细胞癌的诊断及手术治疗。方法:对经手术治疗的肾细胞癌148例资料进行回顾性分析。结果:行肾癌根治术144例,姑息性肾切除1例,保肾手术3例。其中透明细胞癌78例,颗粒细胞癌16例,混合型细胞癌51例,乳头状腺癌3例。92例获得随访。1年和3年生存率分别为94.5%和89.1%。结论:影像学检查可获得早期诊断、尽早行肾癌肾切除术是提高肾癌生存率的关键。     

同侧肾脏同时发生透明细胞型与乳头状肾细胞癌

目的探讨同侧肾脏发病并且相对独立的透明细胞型和肾乳头状细胞癌的临床病理特点及免疫表型,提高对该肿瘤的认识和诊断水平。方法本研究回顾了2例病理诊断为透明细胞型合并肾乳头状细胞癌的临床资料,通过光镜和免疫组织化学染色,针对肾细胞癌相关蛋白标志物[包括 Vimentin、CD10、CK（AE1/AE3）、CK7、CK8/18、PAX2、PAX8、CAⅨ、AMACR]进行了观察和分析。结果2例患者为男性,年龄分别为70、63岁。2例患者的两处独立肿瘤均位于左侧肾脏,镜下观察均可见两处独立肿瘤,肿瘤间隔有正常肾脏组织,分别为乳头状肾细胞癌及透明细胞型肾细胞癌,且免疫组化显示2例患者肿瘤的表型一致。结论单侧肾脏肾透明细胞癌合并肾乳头状细胞癌是一种少见的临床现象,这种现象的存在以及类似的免疫组化表型提示透明细胞型肾细胞癌和乳头状肾细胞癌在发生过程中可能存在着内部的联系。     

多房囊性肾细胞癌的临床特点及预后

目的评价多房囊性肾细胞癌的诊疗特点及预后。方法回顾性分析6例多房囊性肾细胞癌的临床特点、影像学表现、外科手术方法、病理特点,随访其预后。站果男3例,女3例,肿瘤最大直径3．0～7．5cm。CT示多囊性肿物,实性部位平扫CT值30～36Hu,皮质期88～130Hu,排泄期75～96Hu,为隔膜型增强型。腹腔镜肾部分切除术1例,根治性肾切除5例。病理TNM分期,pT1aN0M0 2例,pT1bN0M03例,pT2N0M01例,癌细胞核分级均为G1。中位随访24个月,随访期内未发现远处转移及肿瘤复发,无瘤存活100％。结论多房囊性肾细胞癌为一种特殊的病理类型,病理分期、分级低,预后良好,术前怀疑或术中证实为多房囊性肾细胞癌应考虑行腔镜保留肾单位的肾部分切除术。     

Vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction during major abdominal surgery

Background : We investigated the vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction (MT) with hypotension due to prostacyclin (PGI₂) release in patients undergoing abdominal surgery with a combined general and epidural anesthesia. Methods : In a prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled study we administered 400 mg ibuprofen (i.v.) in 42 patients scheduled for abdominal surgery. General anesthesia was combined with epidural anesthesia (T4-L1). Before as well as 5, 15, 30, 45, and 90 min after MT we recorded plasma osmolality, hemodynamics and measured 6-keto-PGFlα (stabile metabolite of PGI₂), TXB₂ (stabile metabolite of thromboxane A₂) active renin, and arginine vasopressin (AVP) plasma concentrations by radioimmunoassay. Catecholamine levels were assessed by high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) with electrochemical detection. Results : Following MT, arterial hypotension occurred along with a substantial PGI₂ release. This was completely abolished by ibuprofen administration. Although plasma levels of 6-keto-PGF_1α (1133 (708) vs. 60 (3) ng/L, median (median absolute deviation), P=0.0001, placebo vs. ibuprofen) remained significantly elevated, blood pressure was restored within 30 min after MT in the placebo group. At the same point in time plasma concentrations of TXB² (164 (87) vs. 58 (1) ng/L, P=0.0001), epinephrine (46 (33) vs. 14 (6) ng/L, P=0.001), AVP (41 ± (18) vs. 12 (7) ng/L, P=0.0004), and active renin (27 (12) vs. 12 (4) ng/L, P = 0.001) were significantly higher in placebo-treated patients. Conclusion : Under combined general and epidural anesthesia arterial hypotension following MT due to endogenous PGI₂ release is associated with enhanced release of AVP, active renin, epinephrine and thromboxane A₂, presumably contributing to hemodynamic stability within 30 min after MT.     

A Teaspoon Pump for Pumping Blood with High Hydraulic Efficiency and Low Hemolysis Potential

Abstract: Virtually all blood pumps contain some kind of rubbing, sliding, closely moving machinery surfaces that are exposed to the blood being pumped. These valves, internal bearings, magnetic bearing position sensors, and shaft seals cause most of the problems with blood pumps. The original teaspoon pump design prevented the rubbing, sliding machinery surfaces from contacting the blood. However, the hydraulic efficiency was low because the blood was able to "slip around" the rotating impeller so that the blood itself never rotated fast enough to develop adequate pressure. An improved teaspoon blood pump has been designed and tested and has shown acceptable hydraulic performance and low hemolysis potential. The new pump uses a nonrotating "swinging" hose as the pump impeller. The fluid enters the pump through the center of the swinging hose; therefore, there can be no fluid slip between the revolving blood and the revolving impeller. The new pump uses an impeller that is comparable to a flexible garden hose. If the free end of the hose were swung around in a circle like half of a jump rope, the fluid inside the hose would rotate and develop pressure even though the hose impeller itself did not "rotate"; therefore, no rotating shaft seal or internal bearings are required.     

A comparison of the inhibitory effects of four volatile anaesthetics on the metabolism of chlorzoxazone, a substrate for CYP2E1, in rabbits

Background: Halothane inhibits in vitro and in vivo activity of cytochrome P-450 (CYP) 2E1. There are several fluorinated volatile anaesthetics besides halothane, and most of them are defluorinated by CYP2E1. It is unclear whether other fluorinated anaesthetics inhibit the in vivo activity of CYP2E1.
Methods: We compared the inhibitory effects of therapeutic concentrations of four inhalational anaesthetics, halothane, enflurane, isoflurane, and sevoflurane, on chlorzoxazone metabolism in rabbits receiving artificial ventilation.
Results: All four inhalational anaesthetics decreased arterial blood pressure and increased plasma chlorzoxazone concentration. However, no significant differences in the plasma chlorzoxazone concentration were found between the four anaesthetics. The estimated chlorzoxazone clearance increased after beginning inhalation with all four agents, but no significant difference in clearance was noted between agents.
Conclusions: At therapeutic concentrations, the in vivo inhibitory effect on chlorzoxazone metabolism was similar for all four inhalational anaesthetics examined, even though their chemical characteristics and extent of hepatic metabolism differ considerably.     

Microspheres Based Detoxification System: A New Method in Convective Blood Purification

Abstract: A variety of protein-bound or hydrophobic substances, accumulating as a result of pathologic conditions such as exogenous or endogenous intoxications, are removed poorly by conventional detoxification methods because of low accessibility (hemodialysis), insufficient adsorption capabilities (hemosorption), low efficiency (peritoneal dialysis), or economic limitations (high-volume plasmapheresis). Combining advantages of existing methods with microspheric technology, a module-based system was designed. Major operating parameters of the latter can be modified to allow for adjustment to individual clinical situations. An extracorporeal blood circuit including a plasmafilter is combined with a secondary high-velocity plasma circuit driven by a centrifugal pump. Different microspheric adsorbers can be combined in one circuit or applied in sequence. Thus, a prolonged treatment can be tailored using specially designed selective adsorber materials. Comparing this system with existing methods (high-flux hemodialysis, molecular adsorbent recycling system), results from our in vitro studies and animal experiments demonstrate the superior efficiency of substance removal.     

Tissue perfusion in relation to cardiac output during continuous positive-pressure ventilation and administration of propranolol or verapamil

Background : Our objective was to determine whether administration of propranolol or verapamil modifies the hemodynamic adaptation to continuous positive-pressure ventilation (CPPV), in particular the regional distribution of cardiac output (CO).
Methods : General hemodynamics and regional blood flows assessed by microsphere technique (15 (μm) were recorded in 16 anesthetized pigs during spontaneous breathing (SB) and CPPV with 8 cm H₂O end-expiratory pressure (CPPV8) before and after intravenous administration of propranolol (0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.15 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8) or verapamil (0.1 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8).
Results : CPPV8 depressed CO by 25% without shifts in its relative distribution with the exception of a noteworthy increase in adrenal perfusion. Propranolol increased arterial blood pressure, and due to a fall in heart rate, CO dropped by 25%. The kidneys and, to a lesser extent, the splanchic region and central nervous system received increased fractions of the remaining CO at the expense of skeletal muscle flow. Similar patterns were seen during SB and CPPV8 such that the combination of propranolol and CPPV8 depressed CO by 50%. The circulatory effects of verapamil were less evident but myocardial perfusion tended to increase.
Conclusions : The combination of propranolol or verapamil with CPPV does not result in any specific hemodynamic interaction in anesthetized pigs, except that the combined effect of propranolol and CPPV may severely reduce CO.     

Bariatric Surgery in Some "Central and East-European (former Eastern bloc)"Countries - Current Status and Prediction for the Next Millennium

Background: Obesity is increasing globallly, including in the formerly "Eastern Bloc" countries. Methods: A survey was made of obesity and bariatric surgery. Results: In the 8 East and Central European countries studied, with total population 300 million, roughly 43% of the population was overweight (BMI 25-30), 23% obese (BMI > 30), with about 15 million people morbidly obese (BMI > 40). From 0-10 morbidly obese individuals/100,000/year undergo bariatric surgery. Conclusion: Most countries were found to provide inadequate treatment for obesity.The majority of the morbidly obese are not treated effectively. However, health-care awareness of obesity and bariatric surgeons are slowly increasing.     

Volatile anaesthetics reduce adhesion of blood platelets under low-flow conditions in the coronary system of isolated guinea pig hearts

Background : Inhibitory effects of volatile anaesthetics on platelet aggregation have been demonstrated in several studies. However, the influence of volatile anaesthetics on intracoronary platelet adhesion has not been elucidated so far.
Methods : Isolated hearts of guinea pigs were perfused with buffer in the absence or presence of volatile anaesthetics (0.5 and 1 MAC) at constant coronary flow rates of 5 ml/min for 25 min, then 1 ml/min for 30 min and again 5 ml/min for 10 min. Before, during and after low-flow perfusion, a bolus of human platelets was applied into the coronary system. To simulate thrombogenic conditions, 0.3 U/ml human thrombin was infused during low-flow perfusion and reperfusion. The number of platelets sequestered to the endothelium was calculated from the difference between coronary in- and output of platelets. The myocardial production of lactate and consumption of pyruvate and coronary perfusion pressure were also determined.
Results : At a flow rate of 5 ml/min only about 3% of the applied platelets did not emerge from the coronary system, in any group. In contrast, 13.1±1.2% (mean±SEM) of infused platelets became adherent in low-flow perfusion in the control group without anaesthetic. The adherence was reduced with each 1 MAC isoflurane (to 6.2±1.2%), sevoflurane (to 4.4±0.9%) or halothane (to 3.2±1.5%) (each P <0.05 vs. control). Volatile anaesthetic, 0.5 MAC, did not inhibit platelet adhesion to a statistically significant extent in any case. Perfusion pressure and metabolic parameters were not statistically different between the control and the hearts exposed to anaesthetics.
Conclusion : Volatile anaesthetics in a concentration of 1 MAC can reduce the adhesion of platelets in the coronary system under reduced flow conditions. This action does not arise from vasodilation or inhibition of ischaemic stress.     

Synergistic interaction between the effects of propofol and midazolam with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity in rabbits

Background: It has been shown that the depressive effects of both propofol and midazolam on consciousness are synergistic with opioids, but the nature of their interactions on other physiological systems, e. g. respiration, has not been fully investigated. The present study examined the effect of propofol and midazolam alone and in combination with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity (PNA) and whether such interactions are additive or synergistic. Methods: PNA was recorded in 27 anaesthetised and artificially ventilated rabbits. In three groups, propofol, fentanyl and midazolam were administered intravenously in incremental doses to construct dose-response curves for the depressant effects of each one on PNA. In another two groups, the effect of pretreatment with either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. on the effects of propofol and fentanyl respectively on PNA were studied. Results: Propofol and fentanyl caused a dose-dependent depression of PNA with complete abolition at the highest total doses of 16 mg · kg^?1 i. v. and 32 μg · kg^?1 i. v., respectively. In contrast, midazolam in incremental doses to a total of 0.8 mg · kg^?1 reduced mean PNA by 63%, but approximately 12% of PNA remained at a total dose as high as 6.4 mg · kg^?1. The mean ED₅₀s, calculated from dose-response curves, were 5.4 mg · kg^?1, 3.9 μg · kg^?1 and 0.4 mg · kg^?1 for propofol, fentanyl and midazolam, respectively. Initial doses of either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. acted synergistically with subsequent doses of either propofol or fentanyl to abolish PNA at total doses of 8 mg · kg^?1 and 8 μg · kg^?1, respectively. Conclusion: Fentanyl has a synergistic interaction with both propofol and midazolam on PNA and hence potentially on respiration.     

Influence of dopexamine hydrochloride on haemodynamics and regulators of circulation in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery

Background: Catecholaminergic support is often used to improve haemodynamics in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery. Dopexamine is a synthetic vasoactive catecholamine with beneficial microcirculatory properties. Methods: The influence of perioperative administration of dopexamine on cardiorespiratory data and important regulators of macro- and microcirculation were studied in 30 patients undergoing Whipple pancreaticduodenectomy. The patients received randomized and blinded either 2 μg · kg^?1 · min^?1 of dopexamine (n=15) or placebo (n=15, control group). The infusion was started after induction of anaesthesia and continued until the morning of the first postoperative day. Endothelin-1 (ET-1), vasopressin, atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), and catecholamine plasma levels were measured from arterial blood samples. Measurements were carried out after induction of anaesthesia, 2 h after onset of surgery, at the end of surgery, 2 h after surgery, and on the morning of the first postoperative day. Results: Cardiac index (CI) increased significantly in the dopexamine group (from 2.61±0.41 to 4.57±0.78 1 · min^?1 · m^?2) and remained elevated until the morning of the first postoperative day. Oxygen delivery index (DO₂I) and oxygen consumption index (VO₂I) were also significantly increased in the dopexamine group (DO₂I: from 416±91 to 717±110 ml/m² · m²; VO₂I: from 98±25 to 157±22 ml/m² · m²), being significantly higher than in the control group. pHi remained stable only in the dopexamine patients, indicating adequate splanchnic perfusion. Vasopressive regulators of circulation increased significantly only in the untreated control patients (vasopressin: from 4.37±1.1 to 35.9±12.1 pg/ml; ET-1: from 2.88±0.91 to 6.91±1.20 pg/ml). Conclusion: Patients undergoing major abdominal surgery may profit from prophylactic perioperative administration of dopexamine hydrochloride in the form of improved haemodynamics and oxygenation as well as beneficial influence on important regulators of organ blood flow.     

Systemic analgesia adapted to the children's condition

A concept of balanced analgesia using nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), paracetamol (acetaminophen), opioids, and corticosteroids can also be used in patients with pre-existing illnesses. NSAIDs are the most effective treatment for acute pain of moderate intensity in children; however, these drugs should be avoided in patients at increased risk for serious side effects, e.g. patients with renal impairment, bleeding tendency, or extreme prematurity. NSAIDs can be given with minimal risks to the younger child with mild to moderate asthma, and, in these patients, the use of steroids can be encouraged; in addition to their antiemetic and analgesic action, a beneficial effect on asthma symptoms can be expected. In the non-intubated child with cerebral trauma, exaggerated sedation caused by opioids and increased bleeding tendency caused by NSAIDs must be avoided. In neonates and small infants, the oral administration of sucrose or glucose is helpful to minimize pain reaction during short uncomfortable interventions.