Parent-child interaction in the etiology of dependent and self-critical depression

The role of caring parent-child relationships in the development of depression has been investigated in three types of research strategies: (a) the study of secure and insecure attachment patterns in infants and young children; (b) the study of depressed mother-child interactions based on the assumption that the caring patterns in these families of children at risk for depression could contribute to the understanding of the etiology of depression; and (c) the study of normal and depressed adults' retrospective accounts of early caring experiences with their parents. A major conclusion from all three research methodologies is that mental representations or internal working models of attachment of care-giving relationships are central constructs in understanding the development of a vulnerability to depression. Secure and disturbed patterns of caring relationships are internalized by the child as mental representations; impaired mental representations based on disturbed relationships can create a vulnerability to later depression. There are suggestions that an anxious or ambivalent insecure attachment may lead to a depression focused on issues of dependency, loss, and abandonment, whereas an avoidant insecure attachment may result in a depression focused on issues of self-worth and self-criticism, with angry feelings directed toward both the caregiver and toward the self. Indications of possible critical periods in the development of vulnerability to depression are also considered.     

状态性成人依恋量表中文版在中国大学生中的应用

目的:引入状态性成人依恋量表(SAAM)中文版,并检验其在中国大学生中的心理测量学属性。方法:采用问卷法先后调查了2290名大学生。结果:SAAM中文版包括安全、回避和焦虑3个分量表,21个条目,其因素结构得到探索性和验证性因素分析的支持;三个分量表内部一致性系数分别为0.71、0.67、0.54;重测信度分别为0.50、0.55、0.47;三个分量表具有良好的聚合效度和区分效度;中国大学生的状态性依恋风格具有性别差异、年级差异和恋爱状态差异。结论:SAAM中文版具有较好的信度和效度,可用于测评中国大学生的状态性依恋风格波动情况。     

Secondary school advisors as mentors and secondary attachment figures

The teacher–student relationship is vital to student outcomes in secondary school. Unfortunately, the transition from elementary to secondary school is associated with a decrease in the quality or supportiveness of this relationship. In response, some secondary schools implement advisory programs, in which a teacher/advisor meets periodically with a small group of students over an extended period. This study examined whether students (N=209) in two small secondary schools would nominate the advisor as part of their attachment hierarchy. Our results indicated that 40% of the sample considered their advisor to be a secondary attachment figure; further, those that did nominate their advisor reported greater engagement in school and demonstrated greater gains in achievement and adjustment compared to those who did not. A relationship assessment instrument from the attachment literature (RSQ) was found to be more efficacious at predicting student outcomes when compared to instruments used in previous mentoring and relationship research. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Attachment and the regulation of the right brain

It has been three decades since John Bowlby first presented an over-arching model of early human development in his groundbreaking volume, Attachment. In the present paper I refer back to Bowlby's original charting of the attachment landscape in order to suggest that current research and clinical models need to return to the integration of the psychological and biological underpinnings of the theory. Towards that end, recent contributions from neuroscience are offered to support Bowlby's assertions that attachment is instinctive behavior with a biological function, that emotional processes lie at the foundation of a model of instinctive behavior, and that a biological control system in the brain regulates affectively driven instinctive behavior. This control system can now be identified as the orbitofrontal system and its cortical and subcortical connections. This ‘senior executive of the emotional brain’ acts as a regulatory system, and is expanded in the right hemisphere, which is dominant in human infancy and centrally involved in inhibitory control. Attachment theory is essentially a regulatory theory, and attachment can be defined as the interactive regulation of biological synchronicity between organisms. This model suggests that future directions of attachment research should focus upon the early-forming psychoneurobiological mechanisms that mediate both adaptive and maladaptive regulatory processes. Such studies will have direct applications to the creation of more effective preventive and treatment methodologies.     

Attachment in middle childhood: predictors,correlates, and implications for adaptation

Middle childhood is a relative lacuna in behavioral attachment research. We examined antecedents, correlates, and implications of parent–child attachment at age 10 in a longitudinal study of community families from a Midwestern US state (N = 102, mothers, fathers, and children). Dimensions of security, avoidance, ambivalence, and disorganization of children’s attachment to each parent were observed in lengthy naturalistic interactions and assessed using Iowa Attachment Behavioral Coding (IABC). IABC scores were meaningfully associated with history of parental responsiveness (7–80 months) and with earlier and concurrent attachment security, assessed with other established instruments (parent- and observer-rated Attachment Q-Set at 25 months, children’s reports at age 8 and 10). Structural equation modeling analyses revealed that the overall history of responsive care was meaningfully associated with Security, Avoidance, and Disorganization at age 10, in both mother–child and father–child relationships, and that most recent care uniquely predicted Security. IABC scores were also meaningfully related to a broad range of measures of child adaptation at ages 10–12. Cumulative history of children’s security from infancy to middle childhood, integrating measures across relationships and methodologies, also predicted child adaptation at ages 10–12.     

The physicochemical process of bacterial attachment to abiotic surfaces: Challenges for mechanistic studies,predictability and the development of control strategies

Abstract

Bacterial attachment to abiotic surfaces can be explained as a physicochemical process. Mechanisms of the process have been widely studied but are not yet well understood due to their complexity. Physicochemical processes can be influenced by various interactions and factors in attachment systems, including, but not limited to, hydrophobic interactions, electrostatic interactions and substratum surface roughness. Mechanistic models and control strategies for bacterial attachment to abiotic surfaces have been established based on the current understanding of the attachment process and the interactions involved. Due to a lack of process control and standardization in the methodologies used to study the mechanisms of bacterial attachment, however, various challenges are apparent in the development of models and control strategies. In this review, the physicochemical mechanisms, interactions and factors affecting the process of bacterial attachment to abiotic surfaces are described. Mechanistic models established based on these parameters are discussed in terms of their limitations. Currently employed methods to study these parameters and bacterial attachment are critically compared. The roles of these parameters in the development of control strategies for bacterial attachment are reviewed, and the challenges that arise in developing mechanistic models and control strategies are assessed.     

Attachment disorders: Assessment strategies and treatment approaches

The aim of this special issue is to examine methods for assessing and treating attachment disorders. This target article outlines existing strategies for assessment and considers which aspects of severe attachment disturbances and disorders may be core features of the disturbance(s). The usefulness of alternative methodologies for assessment are discussed, with particular emphasis on the need for the development of clinical protocol. The applications and implications for treatment are then discussed, with particular emphasis on the nature of the underlying disturbances that should be a focus for intervention. An absence of established treatment guidelines or consensus regarding the mechanisms of change are highlighted as barriers to further progress.     

Attachment disorders: assessment strategies and treatment approaches

The aim of this special issue is to examine methods for assessing and treating attachment disorders. This target article outlines existing strategies for assessment and considers which aspects of severe attachment disturbances and disorders may be core features of the disturbance(s). The usefulness of alternative methodologies for assessment are discussed, with particular emphasis on the need for the development of clinical protocol. The applications and implications for treatment are then discussed, with particular emphasis on the nature of the underlying disturbances that should be a focus for intervention. An absence of established treatment guidelines or consensus regarding the mechanisms of change are highlighted as barriers to further progress.     

New trends in alexithymia research

Research investigating the alexithymia construct is advancing rapidly and has broadened considerably in recent years as a result of interdisciplinary efforts, new methodologies, and experimental techniques. New developments in the field include a shift from measurement-based validational studies to experimental investigations, which explore the relation between alexithymia and various aspects of emotional processing; the use of functional brain imaging techniques to explore neural activity associated with alexithymia; and experimental studies that measure multiple indices of physiological response to standardized emotion-inducing stimuli. Developmental research and attachment studies are providing ways for investigating potential etiological sources of the construct; and experimental approaches are being used to explore relations between alexithymia and other health-related personality constructs. In addition, longitudinal and treatment studies are clarifying the relation between alexithymia and psychopathology and the extent to which alexithymia predicts treatment outcome. Investigators need to embrace the new methods and techniques for the field of research to further increase understanding of the alexithymia construct and its association with physical and mental illness.     

Toward the next quarter-century: conceptual and methodological challenges for attachment theory

Attachment theory and research have offered fundamental insights into early sociopersonality development for the past quarter-century. As its scope expands throughout the life course with applications to developmental psychopathology, however, attachment work faces important conceptual and methodological challenges. These include (a) expanding Bowlby's theoretical formulations to address developmental changes in the nature of attachment organization beyond infancy, the converging influence of multiple attachment relationships, and the nature and development of internal working models: (b) systematically validating assessments of attachment security for older ages in the context of enhanced theoretical understanding of how attachment itself changes with age; (c) new methodological approaches to understanding the relations between attachment and later behavior in light of empirical evidence of stability and change in attachment security and the need for explicit theoretical predictions of the sequelae of attachment security; and (d) more complex conceptualizations of the associations among attachment, contextual risk, and later behavior. These are similar to the challenges facing the original pioneers of attachment theory and research, suggesting that familiar problems must now be reconsidered against the landscape of new applications of attachment work and the insights of contemporary developmental science.     

Teacher-child relationships from an attachment perspective

This special issue aims to prompt reflection on the mutual contribution of attachment theory, on the one hand, and teacher-child relationship research, on the other, by bringing together conceptual and empirical contributions taking an attachment perspective on teacher-child relationships. In this introductory article, we contend that the teacher can be regarded as an ad hoc attachment figure with a safe haven and secure base function, although for most children the relationship with the teacher is probably not an attachment bond. Furthermore, we explain how attachment theory and research: (1) shape the way in which "high quality" teacher-child relationships are conceptualized and operationalized; (2) highlight the importance of teacher sensitivity to children's needs, as a central proximal determinant of relationship quality; (3) guide research hypotheses regarding the consequences of teacher-child relationship quality and the intervening mechanisms; and (4) inspire the development of interventions to improve teacher-child relationships.     

Regulating emotion expression and regulating emotion experience: divergent associations with dimensions of attachment among older women

Adult attachment research does not systematically distinguish between experiential and expressive forms of regulation. Drawing insights from developmental-functionalism - a lifespan theory of emotion and emotion regulation - the current report examined the relations among attachment, trait emotion, and expressive emotion regulation in a large (N?=?1204) sample of older women. Although both preoccupation and fearful-avoidance predicted more anxiety and anger, preoccupation predicted greater fear withdrawal and less fear expression, while fearful-avoidance predicted greater fear expression and greater anger withdrawal; attachment security predicted less fear withdrawal and less anger expression. Importantly, results regarding expressive regulation held even when controlling for trait levels of the underlying emotion. Results are interpreted within the context of models of attachment and lifespan socioemotional functioning. It is suggested that attachment research may benefit from considering the distinct functions of experienced versus expressed emotion in developmentally diverse contexts. Limitations are discussed and directions for future research are given.     

Phobias of Attachment‐Related Inner States in the Psychotherapy of Adult Survivors of Childhood Complex Trauma

The clinical case described in this article illustrates the value of taking into account the dynamics of disorganized attachment in the assessment of attachment‐related phobias (phobia of attachment and phobia of attachment loss) during the psychotherapy of chronically traumatized patients. These seemingly opposite phobias typically coexist in the same patient, appear as phobias of both inner states (affect phobias) and relational experiences, and are linked to dissociated representations of self‐with‐other. Theory and research on attachment disorganization provide a clinician‐friendly conceptual framework for capturing both the intrapsychic (e.g., intrusive and nonintegrated mental states) and the relational (e.g., dramatic unsolvable dilemmas in interpersonal exchanges) aspects of the attachment‐related phobias. The therapeutic strategy and the key interventions that logically follow from a case formulation based on this conceptual framework are examined.     

Attachment and social competence: a study using MCAST in low-risk Italian preschoolers

The Manchester Child Attachment Story Task (MCAST) is a story stem method suitable for children aged about 4 to 8, aimed at assessing children's attachment representations with a doll-play format that is evaluated with a series of dimensional scales and classifications. Although this instrument has already been validated in previous studies, not all of the findings have been conclusive. The aims of the present study were (1) to examine the factor structure of the MCAST scales, and (2) to test the association between children's dichotomized MCAST classifications and factors with social competence, using the Social Competence and Behavior Evaluation Scale (SCBE) with a normative group of Italian preschoolers (age range 4.4 to 6.1). Results obtained from a sample of 64 children confirm the association of MCAST attachment classifications (security vs. insecurity and organization vs. disorganization) with both social skills and behavioral problems. Further independent studies on the variables analyzed are recommended for corroborating the findings obtained.     

A comparative study for the development of a thermal odoscope for the wearable dynamic thermography monitoring

BACKGROUND: The need of the reliable continuous monitoring of temperature is rising in many clinical applications. Today the use of thermography has become central for instance in the analysis of breast cancer, for the survey of inflammatory processes and certain skin areas during physical exercise. The core of the problem is the development of an ad hoc instrument, because traditional methodologies such as infrared and liquid crystals are no longer suitable. MATERIAL AND METHODS: We developed a dedicated simulation set-up using Matlab R12 procedures (The Mathworks, USA) and P-spice models (Interlink, USA). We simulated the realisation and use of three different equipment configurations for thermography, one based on PTC sensors, another on thermocouples, a third one on specific integrated silicon components. We also bench tested one prototype. RESULTS: The results showed the feasibility of the realisation of the instrument and the validity of the data obtained by means of the simulation.     

The establishment of an attachment research network in Latin America: Goals,accomplishments, and challenges

In the face of a pressing need for expanded attachment research programs and attachment informed interventions in Latin America, a research network was established: Red Iberoamericana de Apego: RIA (Iberian-American Attachment Network). The purpose of RIA is to promote human development and well being, informed by attachment theory, centering on research, and with implications for public policies, education, and intervention. We report the proceedings of the second meeting of RIA held in Panama City, Panama, in February 2010. As part of this meeting, RIA sponsored the first Latin-American attachment conference. Proceedings of the conference are described, as are future goals of this new organization.     

Attachment in old age: Theoretical assumptions,empirical findings and implications for clinical practice

Contemporary theoretical models that conceptualize attachment as a biologically-based behavioral system that is activated under threat offer a heuristic theoretical framework to understand processes involved in aging and particularly individual differences in coping with the inevitable losses associated with aging and age-related disease, including dementia. This paper provides a systematic qualitative review of research concerning attachment in old age published between 1983 and June 2012. Four major findings emerged. First, studies suggest age-related changes with regard to the number and type of attachment figures, with older adults, compared to younger adults, having less attachment relations. Moreover, so-called symbolic attachments (e.g., to God or a deceased loved one) become more prominent in old age. Second, the quality of attachment changes with increasing age, with significant decreases in attachment anxiety, but not in attachment avoidance. Third, late-life attachment is in theoretically predicted ways associated with indices of intraindividual and interindividual functioning. Finally, insecure attachment has a negative impact on subjective caregiver burden and behavior of patients with dementia. There is some evidence suggesting that attachment-based interventions show positive effects in treating problem behaviors associated with dementia. However, these conclusions need to be interpreted within the context of important methodological limitations, stressing the need for future research in this domain. Guidelines for future research are outlined.     

The establishment of an attachment research network in Latin America: goals, accomplishments, and challenges

In the face of a pressing need for expanded attachment research programs and attachment informed interventions in Latin America, a research network was established: Red Iberoamericana de Apego: RIA (Iberian-American Attachment Network). The purpose of RIA is to promote human development and well being, informed by attachment theory, centering on research, and with implications for public policies, education, and intervention. We report the proceedings of the second meeting of RIA held in Panama City, Panama, in February 2010. As part of this meeting, RIA sponsored the first Latin-American attachment conference. Proceedings of the conference are described, as are future goals of this new organization.