广东省新生儿乙型肝炎疫苗免疫效果分析和免疫策略探讨

目的分析广东省新生儿乙型肝炎疫苗的免疫效果,为制定广东省乙型肝炎疫苗免疫策略提供依据。方法分析广东省1992~2003年乙型肝炎疫苗接种率、乙型肝炎发病率和人群乙肝病毒表面抗原(HBsAg)携带率等资料。结果乙肝疫苗1992年纳入计划免疫管理,2002年纳入计划免疫,新生儿乙肝疫苗免疫逐渐完善,1997年、2003年新生儿乙型肝炎疫苗接种率分别为73.6%、93.1%;1993~2003年乙型肝炎平均报告发病率为33.80/10万,从1993年的28.85/10万上升至2003年的33.00/10万,其中0~4岁组和5~9岁组分别由17.05/10万、26.10/10万下降至6.36/10万、6.72/10万;1~59岁人群HBsAg携带率由1992年的16.76%下降至2002年的13.28%,其中1~4岁组和5~9岁组分别由16.76%1、9.14%降至4.86%、6.39%,10~59岁组变化不大。结论实施新生儿乙肝疫苗免疫能显著地降低乙肝发病率和HBsAg携带率;今后在实施新生儿乙肝疫苗免疫的同时,应考虑开展对未接种过乙肝疫苗的儿童和重点人群进行乙肝疫苗免疫。     

Varicella surveillance in public elementary schools--Multnomah County, Oregon, 2002-2004

Varicella vaccination of school-aged children reduces the number of varicella cases and lost days of school. In 1996, the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) recommended routine vaccination of all children aged 12-18 months, catch-up vaccination of all susceptible children before age 13 years, and vaccination of susceptible persons who have close contact with persons at high risk for serious complications and susceptible persons at high risk for exposure. In 1999, ACIP updated these recommendations to include vaccination requirements for child care and school entry. Since 2000, in accordance with ACIP recommendations, varicella vaccination requirements have been phased in for Oregon children who have not had varicella before starting out-of-home child care, kindergarten, or seventh grade; elementary school children will be fully covered by school year (SY) 2006-07. To monitor changes in varicella incidence, Oregon Health Services (OHS) and Multnomah Education Service District (MESD) started routine, individual, case-based varicella surveillance in Multnomah County public elementary schools (kindergarten through 5th grade) beginning SY 2002-03. This report describes the surveillance system, the incidence of varicella during SY 2002-03 and SY 2003-04, and the results of active surveillance for unidentified cases during SY 2002-03. The findings indicate that the number of varicella cases has decreased in Oregon and that establishing public elementary school-based varicella surveillance is feasible and useful.     

The impact of routine infant immunization with Haemophilus influenzae type b conjugate vaccine in Malawi, a country with high human immunodeficiency virus prevalence

Malawi has extreme poverty and a high-human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) prevalence. Following Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) conjugate vaccine introduction during 2002, we evaluated vaccine impact by reviewing hospital surveillance data for acute bacterial meningitis in Blantyre district among children age 1-59 months admitted during 1997-2005. Documented annual Hib meningitis incidence rates decreased from 20-40/100,000 to near zero among both rural and urban residents despite no change in pneumococcal meningitis incidence rates. Before vaccine introduction, an average of 10 children/year had Hib meningitis and HIV infection compared to 2/year during 2003-2004 and none during 2005. Vaccine effectiveness was high following two or more doses of vaccine. The most urgent future need is for a sustainable routine infant immunization program, including a less expensive vaccine that preferably is delivered in a multivalent form.     

The incidence of varicella and herpes zoster in Taiwan during a period of increasing varicella vaccine coverage, 2000-2008

The introduction and the widespread use of the varicella vaccine in Taiwan has led to a 75-80% decrease in the incidence of varicella in children. However the vaccine's long-term impact on the incidence of herpes zoster (HZ) has attracted attention. By controlling gender, underlying diseases, and age effects, a Poisson regression was applied on the 2000-2008 chart records of 240 000 randomly selected residents who enrolled in the Universal National Health Insurance. The results show that, as the vaccine coverage in children increases, the incidence of varicella decreases. However, the incidence of HZ increased even before the implementation of the free varicella vaccination programme in 2004, particularly in females. The increase in the incidence of HZ cannot be entirely and directly attributed to the widespread vaccination of children. Continuous monitoring is needed to understand the secular trends in HZ before and after varicella vaccination in Taiwan and in other countries.     

Utilization of middle ear ventilatory tubes for children, ages 0-12 years, in the Netherlands during 1990-1994]

OBJECTIVE: To explore the incidence of treatment with ventilation tubes in the Netherlands in children from birth to 12 years of age in the period from 1990 to 1994. DESIGN: Secondary data analysis. METHODS: Data on bilateral treatment with ventilation tubes in 1990-1994 in the Netherlands were obtained from the National Medical Register of SIG Health Care Information. Incidence rates of the treatment in children aged 0-12 years were calculated using population estimates issued by the National Department of Statistics. RESULTS: Whereas from 1990 to 1992 the total number of bilateral inserted tubes increased from 39.923 to 51.615, a decrease to 48.635 was observed in 1994. The average incidence rate of treatment with ventilation tubes was 1.97% (range: 0.12%-5.08%) in children from birth to 12 years. Peak incidences were found around 2 years and 6 years of age. Prevalence rates of otitis media with effusion as found in the literature were higher, especially during infancy.     

Project protect: pneumococcal vaccination in Washington State nursing homes

BACKGROUND: Pneumonia is the third most frequent cause of hospitalization among Medicare beneficiaries in Washington State. While a vaccine against pneumococcal disease has been available since 1977, the 1999 Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System estimates that less than 60% of adults aged 65 years and older in Washington State have been vaccinated. METHODS: To assess the prevalence of pneumococcal vaccination policies, we surveyed all Washington nursing homes in 1999 and again in 2001 to assess changes during the intervening period. Following the policy surveys, to estimate the pneumococcal vaccination rate, we conducted assessments of a random sample of residents of Washington nursing homes. RESULTS: Use of standing orders/written pneumococcal vaccination policies by nursing homes increased by 14% from 58% in 1999 to 72% in 2001. The pneumococcal vaccination rate for residents of nursing homes increased from 47% in 2000 to 61% in 2002. Both increases were statistically significant. The odds of a resident receiving a pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine (PPV) in a nursing home having standing orders or other written guidelines are estimated to be two-and-a-half times greater than for residents in facilities without any PPV guidelines (2000: OR = 2.59; 95% CI, 1.54-4.34; 2002: OR = 3.19; 95% CI, 1.68-6.01). CONCLUSION: Increased use of standing orders/written policies has contributed to higher rates of pneumococcal vaccination in Washington State nursing homes.     

Trend of increase in the incidence of acute myocardial infarction in a Japanese population: Takashima AMI Registry, 1990-2001

The incidence and mortality of acute myocardial infarction (AMI) remain low in Japan despite major dietary changes and worsening cardiovascular risk factors, a situation that should have resulted in a substantial increase in AMI rates (Japanese paradox). The current trend in the incidence of AMI was examined for the period 1990-2001 by use of data from the Takashima AMI Registry covering a stable population of approximately 55,000 in central Japan. AMI incidence rates (per 100,000 person-years) and 95% confidence intervals were calculated for 1990-1992, 1993-1995, 1996-1998, and 1999-2001. The incidence trend was determined by calculating the average annual change in percentage across the years. There were 352 (men: n = 224; women: n = 128) registered first-ever AMI cases during 1990-2001. The age-adjusted incidence rate of all AMI showed a gradual increase from 39.9 (95% confidence interval (CI): 29.8, 50.0) in 1990-1992 to 62.6 (95% CI: 51.5, 73.7) in 1999-2001. In men, the age-adjusted incidence rate increased from 66.5 (95% CI: 46.4, 86.6) in 1990-1992 to 100.7 (95% CI: 78.6, 122.7) in 1999-2001. In women, fluctuation was observed after an initial steep increase. The average annual incidence increased by 7.6% (95% CI: 3.5, 11.7) among men and by 8.3% (95% CI: 1.02, 15.6) among women. To the best of the authors' knowledge, this is the first study to report an increasing trend of AMI in a Japanese population.     

Hepatitis A incidence and hepatitis a vaccination among American Indians and Alaska Natives, 1990-2001

OBJECTIVES: We assessed the effect on trends in hepatitis A incidence of the 1996 recommendation for routine hepatitis A vaccination of American Indian/Alaska Native (AIAN) children. METHODS: We examined trends in hepatitis A incidence among AIAN peoples during 1990-2001 and vaccination coverage levels among children on the largest American Indian reservation. RESULTS: Hepatitis A rates among AIANs declined 20-fold during 1997-2001. Declines in hepatitis A incidence occurred among AIANs in reservation and metropolitan areas. Among 1956 children living on the Navajo Nation whose medical records were reviewed, 1508 (77.1%) had received at least one dose of hepatitis A vaccine, and 1020 (52.1%) had completed the vaccine series. CONCLUSIONS: Hepatitis A rates among AIAN peoples have declined dramatically coincident with implementation of routine hepatitis A vaccination of AIAN children.     

Mass measles immunization campaign: experience in the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of China

After the 1988 measles outbreak, annual notification rates for measles in Hong Kong SAR between 1989 and 1999 were 0.4-4.9 per 100 000, with peaks in 1992, 1994 and 1997. The first half-year incidence rates per 100 000 were 2.3 in 1997, 0.5 in 1995 and 1.2 in 1996. Monthly notification rates increased from a baseline of <10 cases to 59 in May 1997. Serological surveillance showed only 85.5% of children aged 1-19 years had measles antibodies. An epidemic, mainly because of failure of the first dose to produce immunity, seemed imminent in mid-1997. A mass immunization campaign targeted children aged 1-19 from July to November 1997. The overall coverage was 77%. The rate of adverse events was low. After the campaign, measles notification fell to 0.9 per 100 000 in 1998. A two-dose strategy and supplementary campaigns will maintain measles susceptibility at levels low enough to make measles elimination our goal.     

Occurrence and risk factors of oral candidiasis treated with oral antifungals in seniors using inhaled steroids

Oral candidiasis (OC) is a frequent side effect of inhaled corticosteroids (iCSTs). This study estimated occurrence and significance of risk factors of OC treated with antifungals in users of iCSTs under conditions of normal use. This retrospective analysis used data drawn from drug insurance plan records in Quebec, Canada. The sample contained 27,000 seniors using anti-asthma medications during 1990. Three years of data (1989-1991) were searched for use of oral antifungals concurrent with exposure to iCSTs. A case-control study examined factors leading to increased probability of first incidence of OC in new users of iCSTs. Three-year occurrence for OC was 7%. Increased risk for a first occurrence of OC was significantly associated with higher doses of iCST, increased length of iCST exposure, use of antibiotics, use of oral steroids, having three or more prescribers, a history of use of both high and low strengths of iCST, and concurrent use of oral steroids and diabetes medications. The occurrence of OC is relatively high. Knowledge of factors leading to increased risk could facilitate the targetting of patients who need timely intervention, under conditions of normal use.     

Clostridium difficile-associated disease in Oregon: increasing incidence and hospital-level risk factors.

BACKGROUND: The incidence of Clostridium difficile-associated disease (CDAD) appears to be increasing. Population-based estimates of disease have been limited, and analyses of hospital-level risk factors for CDAD are lacking. We sought to determine the incidence and trends of CDAD in Oregon and to identify hospital-level factors associated with increases in disease. METHODS: We analyzed hospital discharge data to calculate the incidence and to describe trends of CDAD in Oregon from 1995 through 2002. We administered questionnaires to hospital laboratory directors, infection control practitioners, and pharmacists to determine the status of laboratory, infection control, and pharmacy policies over time. RESULTS: The overall incidence of CDAD in Oregon was 3.5 case patients per 10,000 residents in 2002. Incidence increased from 1.4 to 3.3 cases per 1,000 hospital discharges from 1995 to 2002. Rates of disease increased most in hospitals with licensed bed capacity of more than 250 beds and more than 5 intensive care unit beds. Few laboratories, infection control practitioners, and pharmacists were able to identify changes in specific policies over the study period. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first study to determine a statewide population-based incidence of CDAD. Incidence of CDAD in Oregon has more than doubled over the past decade; larger hospitals experienced the greatest increase in disease rates. We did not identify hospital-level policies that could explain the increase. A study of patients with CDAD at the hospitals with the largest increases is underway to further identify risk factors.     

Comparison of cancer survival by age group for 1997 and for 2002: application of period analysis using the National Cancer Incidence Database]

OBJECTIVES: Period analysis estimates up-to-date survival rates of cancer patients. In this approach, analysis is restricted to recent time period by left-truncating all observations at the beginning of the period and right-censoring at its end. Here, we applied period analysis to examine changes in 5-year relative survival (RS) by age group for 1997 and for 2002. METHODS: Using the National Cancer Incidence Database, 5-year RS was estimated for 1997 and 2002 in four age groups (15-54, 55-64, 65-74, and 75 years old and over) using period analysis. After excluding death certificate-only cases, patients with an unknown date of diagnosis or follow-up length, a total of 813,889 patients diagnosed with a first primary invasive cancer during 1992-2002 were included for analysis. Followup for vital status was included until 31 December 2002. RESULTS: Five-year RS increased from 41.7% for 1997 to 46.7% for 2002. Increases in survival occurred in all age groups except in the 75 and over group. CONCLUSIONS: The age gradient in cancer prognosis seems to have widened between 1997 and 2002, a finding that requires further study of prognostic factors, including stage at diagnosis. Period analysis accurately estimates survival rates, especially for cancers with better prognosis.     

Declining invasive pneumococcal disease in the U.S. elderly

In 2000, pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV7) was recommended for young children. By 2002-2003, 48.6% had been fully immunized. Using Medicare administrative, we found that the rates of invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD) hospitalizations in the elderly in the 2000-2001, 2001-2002 and 2002-2003, were 22.6, 30.2, and 40.6% lower, respectively, than during the baseline period, 1996-1997 through 1999-2000 (range 35.1/100,000 to 38.3/100,000). Pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine (PPV23) has been recommended for the elderly, since 1989. PPV23 vaccination rates in the elderly increased by 25.2% during the baseline period but by <5% during the period PCV7 has been available. Thus, during the period that PCV7 vaccine has been used in children, rates of IPD in the elderly have declined appreciably more compared to the immediately prior period when PPV23 was the only vaccine available.     

Fifteen-year trends in cardiovascular risk factors (1980-1982 through 1995-1997): the Minnesota Heart Survey

The objective was to describe trends in cardiovascular risk factors between 1980-1982 and 1995-1997 in metropolitan Minneapolis-St. Paul, Minnesota. Four population-based surveys of 4,000-6,000 adults aged 25-74 years were conducted in 1980-1982, 1985-1987, 1990-1992, and 1995-1997 using consistent sampling strategies and protocols. The authors completed interviews and examinations to characterize cardiovascular risk factors. Blood samples were drawn and assayed for several analytes including total cholesterol. Although total cholesterol decreased 7-9 mg/dl during the 1980s, no further reduction was noted between 1990-1992 and 1995-1997. Hypercholesterolemia prevalence (total cholesterol of >240 mg/dl and/or use of lipid-lowering medication) fell between 1980-1982 and 1990-1992 but increased thereafter. Current cigarette smoking, systolic blood pressure, and hypertension prevalence decreased significantly between 1980-1982 and 1995-1997. Body mass index increased substantially across the four surveys. Although there was little change in the mean leisure-time physical activity, the proportion of the population not engaging in regular exercise increased between 1990-1992 and 1995-1997. Dietary fat decreased consistently from 1980-1982 to 1995-1997, while overall caloric intake rose 8% in women but not men. To conclude, the favorable trends in hypertension, cigarette smoking, and dietary fat consumption observed in Minneapolis-St. Paul from 1980-1982 to 1995-1997 were paralleled by less favorable recent trends in total cholesterol, hypercholesterolemia, adiposity, and physical activity.     

Measles epidemic attributed to inadequate vaccination coverage--Campania, Italy, 2002

In Italy, measles has been a mandatory reportable disease for >100 years. During the prevaccination era, approximately 25,000-90,000 cases were reported annually. During the late 1980s and 1990s, incidence declined with increasing measles vaccination coverage, but measles epidemics continued to occur periodically, most recently during 1995-1997. In early 2002, measles incidence increased sharply; the area most affected was Campania (2001 population: approximately 5,782,000, including 1,100,000 children aged <15 years), a large region in southern Italy. In 2001, estimated measles vaccination coverage for the 1998 Campania birth cohort was 65%. Regional health authorities and the National Institute of Health investigated the measles outbreak in Campania. This report summarizes the preliminary results of the investigation, which attributed the epidemic to inadequate vaccination coverage. A coordinated effort is needed to interrupt measles transmission in Italy.     

Incidence of severe unintentional carbon monoxide poisoning differs across racial/ethnic categories

OBJECTIVE: This study was conducted to test the hypothesis that the incidence of severe, acute, unintentional carbon monoxide (CO) poisoning differs across racial/ethnic categories. METHODS: The authors retrospectively reviewed medical records of all Washington State residents treated with hyperbaric oxygen for severe, acute, unintentional CO poisoning from December 1, 1987, through February 28, 1997. RESULTS: Among 586 Washington State residents treated with hyperbaric oxygen for severe, acute, unintentional CO poisoning, racial/ethnic designations could be determined from record review for 530 (90%). The black and Hispanic white populations of Washington State had higher relative risks for severe, acute, unintentional CO poisoning than the non-Hispanic white population. The most common sources of CO poisoning differed by racial/ethnic category. CONCLUSIONS: Members of certain groups in Washington State are at higher risk for severe, unintentional CO poisoning. Public education programs regarding CO exposure should be targeted to populations at risk.     

溺水流行特征与预防控制研究进展

  目的  了解1990年与2015年湖北省人群溺水的疾病负担及变化情况,为溺水的预防和控制工作提供参考依据。  方法  利用2015年全球疾病负担（GBD）研究结果,采用患病率、死亡率、伤残损失寿命年（YLD）、过早死亡损失寿命年（YLL）、伤残调整寿命年（DALY）等指标对1990年和2015年湖北省人群溺水的疾病负担状况进行描述;应用2015年GBD的标准人口对各指标进行标化,描述其疾病负担的变化情况。  结果  2015年与1990年比较,湖北省人群溺水患病数由1990年的7.86万例降至2015年的5.00万例（下降36.39 %）,标化患病率由1990年的175.43/10万降至2015年的79.90/10万（下降54.45 %）;死亡数由1990年的1.36万例降至2015年的0.38万例（下降72.06 %）,标化死亡率由1990年的24.23/10万降至2015年的7.96/10万（下降67.15 %）;湖北省人群溺水的YLD由1990年的0.57万人年降至2015年的0.22万人年（下降61.40 %）,标化YLD率由1990年的12.33/10万降至2015年的3.55/10万（下降71.21 %）;YLL由1990年的96.54万人年降至2015年的17.88万人年（下降81.48 %）,标化YLL率由1990年的1 598.76/10万降至2015年的425.41/10万（下降73.39 %）;DALY由1990年的97.11万人年降至2015年的18.10万人年（下降81.36 %）,标化DALY率由1990年的1 611.09/10万降至2015年的428.96/10万（下降73.37 %）。不同年龄组人群中,1990年与2015年溺水患病率均以 ≥ 70岁老年人为最高（505.73/10万和331.62/10万）;溺水死亡率1990年以 < 5岁儿童为最高（88.94/10万）,2015年以 ≥ 70岁老年人为最高（21.39/10万）;1990年和2015年YLL率、DALY率均以 < 5岁儿童为最高（7 526.43/10万和1 109.36/10万、7 528.24/10万和1 109.64/10万）,YLD率均以 ≥ 70岁老年人为最高（28.99/10万和14.29/10万）;2015年与1990年比较,2015年溺水患病率、死亡率、YLD率、YLL率和DALY率在各年龄段均有下降,其下降幅度随年龄增长而减少,其中 < 5岁儿童的下降幅度均最大。  结论  2015年较1990年湖北省人群溺水的疾病负担有所下降,溺水的疾病负担主要由早死所致,儿童、青少年和老年人仍是溺水关注的重点人群。     

Decline in breast cancer incidence--United States, 1999-2003

Breast cancer is the most commonly diagnosed cancer among females in the United States. The 2006 Annual Report to the Nation on the Status of Cancer described a stabilization in female breast cancer incidence rates during 2001-2003, ending increases that began in the 1980s, and a decline in the number of breast cancer cases diagnosed in 2003. In addition, researchers who used 1990-2003 data from the National Cancer Institute's (NCI's) Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) program, representing approximately 14% of the U.S. population, reported a 7% decrease in invasive breast cancer rates from 2002 to 2003. To further assess breast cancer annual incidence rates during 1999-2003, CDC analyzed data collected by CDC's National Program of Cancer Registries (NPCR) and the NCI SEER program. These combined data account for approximately 86% of the U.S. population. The results of this analysis indicated that age-adjusted incidence rates for invasive breast cancer decreased each year during 1999-2003, with the greatest decrease (6.1%) occurring from 2002 to 2003; women aged > or = 50 years experienced a significant decrease during this period. Rates of in situ (i.e., noninvasive) breast cancer increased each year during 1999-2002 and then decreased from 2002 to 2003; women aged 50-79 years experienced a significant decrease during this period. Future studies should focus on determining potential causes for these decreases.     

Review of the United States universal varicella vaccination program: Herpes zoster incidence rates,cost-effectiveness,and vaccine efficacy based primarily on the Antelope Valley Varicella Active Surveillance Project data

In a cooperative agreement starting January 1995, prior to the FDA's licensure of the varicella vaccine on March 17, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) funded the Los Angeles Department of Health Services’ Antelope Valley Varicella Active Surveillance Project (AV-VASP). Since only varicella case reports were gathered, baseline incidence data for herpes zoster (HZ) or shingles was lacking. Varicella case reports decreased 72%, from 2834 in 1995 to 836 in 2000 at which time approximately 50% of children under 10 years of age had been vaccinated. Starting in 2000, HZ surveillance was added to the project. By 2002, notable increases in HZ incidence rates were reported among both children and adults with a prior history of natural varicella. However, CDC authorities still claimed that no increase in HZ had occurred in any US surveillance site. The basic assumptions inherent to the varicella cost–benefit analysis ignored the significance of exogenous boosting caused by those shedding wild-type VZV. Also ignored was the morbidity associated with even rare serious events following varicella vaccination as well as the morbidity from increasing cases of HZ among adults. Vaccine efficacy declined below 80% in 2001. By 2006, because 20% of vaccinees were experiencing breakthrough varicella and vaccine-induced protection was waning, the CDC recommended a booster dose for children and, in 2007, a shingles vaccination was approved for adults aged 60 years and older. In the prelicensure era, 95% of adults experienced natural chickenpox (usually as children)—these cases were usually benign and resulted in long-term immunity. Varicella vaccination is less effective than the natural immunity that existed in prevaccine communities. Universal varicella vaccination has not proven to be cost-effective as increased HZ morbidity has disproportionately offset cost savings associated with reductions in varicella disease. Universal varicella vaccination has failed to provide long-term protection from VZV disease.