Canadian cancer screening disparities: a recent historical perspective

Across Canada, introduction of the Pap test for cervical cancer screening, followed by mammography for breast cancer screening and, more recently, the fecal occult blood test for colorectal cancer screening, has contributed to a reduction in cancer mortality. However, another contribution of screening has been disparities in cancer mortality between certain populations. Here, we explore the disparities associated with breast and cervical cancer screening and preliminary data concerning disparities in colorectal cancer screening.Although some disparities in screening utilization have been successfully reduced over time (for example, mammography and Pap test screening in rural and remote populations), screening utilization data for other populations (for example, low-income groups) clearly indicate that disparities have existed and continue to exist across Canada. Organized screening programs in Canada have been able to successfully engage 80% of women for regular cervical cancer screening and 70% of women for regular mammography screening, but of the women who remain to be reached or engaged in regular screening, those with the least resources, those who are the most isolated, and those who are least culturally integrated into Canadian society as a whole are over-represented. Population differences are also observed for utilization of colorectal cancer screening services.The research literature on interventions to promote screening utilization provides some evidence about what can be done to increase participation in organized screening by vulnerable populations. Adaption and adoption of evidence-based screening promotion interventions can increase the utilization of available screening services by populations that have experienced the greatest burden of disease with the least access to screening services.     

Screening for breast cancer in a high-risk series

A unique cohort of women at increased risk of breast cancer because of prior X-ray treatment of acute mastitis and their selected high-risk siblings were offered periodic breast cancer screening including physical examination of the breasts, mammography, and thermography. Twelve breast cancers were detected when fewer than four would have been expected based on age-specific breast cancer detection rates from the National Cancer Institute/American Cancer Society Breast Cancer Demonstration Detection Projects. Mammograpy was positive in all cases but physical examination was positive in only three cases. Thermography was an unreliable indicator of disease. Given the concern over radiation-induced risk, use of low-dose technique and of criteria for participation that select women at high risk of breast cancer will maximize the benefit/risk ratio for mammography screening.     

肺癌的筛查

肺癌的筛查目前仍是一个有争议的问题.本文讨论了肺癌筛查的必要性和可行性,对肺癌筛查的历史和现状以及新的影像学和分子生物学技术在肺癌筛查和早期诊断中的价值和应用前景进行了回顾.利用生物标志物进行肺癌的筛查仍处于研究阶段,尚需前瞻性的研究对其效果进行评价.低剂量螺旋CT是目前最有希望用于人群肺癌筛查的新技术.肺癌的筛查应根据不同的卫生资源情况利用多种筛查技术采取不同的筛查策略在肺癌高危人群中进行.     

Screening for breast cancer

This review will give a general overview of the impact of breast cancer, as well as breast cancer risk factors, identification of high-risk groups, screening modalities, and guidelines for screening average-risk and high-risk individuals, including a case discussion of the primary care provider’s approach to screening.     

TruScreen系统在宫颈癌筛查中的应用效果

目的：探讨宫颈癌筛查系统TruScreen（TS）在宫颈癌筛查中的应用效果。方法回顾性分析368例检查者,分为TS检测组和TCT检测组,每组184例,TS检测组行TS检测,TCT检测组行液基薄层细胞学（TCT）检测,以组织病理学为诊断标准,比较TS与TCT检查在宫颈癌筛查中的应用效果。结果 TS检测组与TCT检测组检测敏感度分别为93.2%、100%,特异度分别为76.0%、75.0%,阳性符合率分别为64.7%、55.7%。结论 TS检测与TCT检测在宫颈癌筛查中具有相似的检测效果,值得临床推广和运用。     

癌症广谱筛查研究之三

目的：探索常见恶性肿瘤自筛方法。方法：通过科普宣传教育,让群众学会自查体表部位;每年用自查盒助查各空腔脏器有无隐血,可疑时,去医院进一步精查,北京部分大学40岁－70岁居民自愿入组1万人,分成试验组,对照组各5000人,结果：1996年－1999年底试验组共检出79例癌、年平均癌检出率482．5／10万,癌死亡为12．2／10万;对照组癌死亡率为206．2／10万,两组差异有显著性,在癌症高发区,同时作扩大普查试验,广东四会市肿瘤所门诊普查1689人 ,检出25例癌,鼻咽癌24例,1999年－2000年,江苏省食管癌胃癌高发区普查近8万人,检出480例癌,加上“九五”以前的普查统计,用秦氏自查盒已筛查431075人,检出1272例癌,癌前病变1万多例。结论：开展科普宣教,防癌自查普查,理论,理论与实践相符,方法简便,经济、实用、值推广应用。     

山西省襄垣县宫颈癌和乳腺癌联合筛查效果初探

目的 通过分析为国家宫颈癌和乳腺癌筛查提供基本评价数据.方法 2009～2010年山西省襄垣县妇幼保健院对该县30～59岁妇女通过醋酸/碘染色后肉眼观察方法开展宫颈癌筛查,阳性者转诊阴道镜,镜下有病变时取活检,以病理诊断为金标准.对35～59岁的妇女开展乳腺癌筛查,以临床检查法为初筛方法,怀疑阳性者通过超声或乳腺X线进行诊断.结果 2009年完成1993名妇女的宫颈癌筛查,其中宫颈上皮内瘤变2级(CIN2)及以上病变的患病率为1.6%,早诊率为100%,第2年复查率为91%,仅查出1例CIN2,未查出更高病变,早诊率达100%.完成1819名妇女的乳腺癌筛查,乳腺良性病变9例(4.02%),良性肿瘤3例(1.34%);2010年完成2026名妇女的乳腺癌筛查,良性病变103例(13.57%),良性肿瘤14例(1.84%),可疑恶性1例.结论 该县宫颈癌的筛查效果明显,乳腺癌筛查仍需加强技术培训.筛查体系和技术队伍建设是基层单位承担农村妇女健康保健服务的关键.     

Cancer screening status in Korea, 2011: results from the Korean National Cancer Screening Survey

This study was conducted to determine the use of screening for stomach, liver, colorectal, breast, and cervical cancers, which are included in the Korean National Cancer Screening Programme. In 2011 the National Cancer Centre in Korea conducted a nationwide, population-based, cross-sectional interview survey using multi-stage random sampling. Participants included 4,100 cancer-free men 40 years and over of age and women over 30 years of age. The lifetime screening rates for stomach, liver, colorectal, breast, and cervical cancers were 76.2%, 54.3%, 56.1%, 79.0%, and, 74.8%, respectively. The rates of recommended screening for stomach, liver, colorectal, breast, and cervical cancers were 64.6%, 22.9%, 35.3%, 60.4%, and 62.4%, respectively. More than 70% of all screening was attributed to organised cancer screening programmes. The main reason given for non attendance was 'no symptoms'. A greater effort is needed to increase screening rates, especially for liver and colorectal cancers.     

Quantification of the effect of mammographic screening on fatal breast cancers: The Florence Programme 1990-96

Breast cancer cases diagnosed in women aged 50-69 since 1990 to 1996 in the City of Florence were partitioned into those who had been invited to screening prior to diagnosis and those who had not. All cases were followed up for vital status until 31 December 1999. The cumulative number of breast cancer deaths among the cases were divided by screening and invitation status, to give the rates of cancers proving fatal within a period of 8 years of observation (incidence-based mortality). We used the incidence-based mortality rates for two periods (1985-86, 1990-96), pre and during screening. The incidence-based mortality ratio comparing 1990-96 and 1985-86 was 0.50 (95% CI : 0.38-0.66), a significant 50% reduction. For noninvited women, compared to 1985-86, there was a 41% significant mortality reduction (RR=0.59, 95% CI : 0.42-0.82). The comparable reduction in those invited was a significant 55% (RR=0.45, 95% CI : 0.32-0.61). The incidence ratio of rates of cancers stage II or worse was close to one when the noninvited in 1990-96 were compared with 1985-86 (RR=0.97, 95% CI : 0.78-1.21). Excluding prevalent cases, the rate of stage II+ breast cancer cases was 42% lower in Screened women compared with the noninvited (RR=0.58, 95% CI : 0.45-0.74). This study confirmed that new treatments and the first rounds of the screening programme contributed to reducing mortality from breast cancer.     

深圳市子宫颈癌早诊早治初步研究

目的研究深圳城市人群子宫颈癌早诊早治的适宜方式。方法2006～2007年采取整群随机抽样方法获得福田区教育局和龙岗区龙城街道紫薇社区样本人群及2005～2008年深圳市妇幼保健院妇科门诊机会性筛查人群。以上人群分别由学校工会和社区居委会、计划生育服务站宣教和组织;机会性筛查人群由妇科门诊护士和医师宣教和推荐。采用细胞学检查、HPV—DNA检测的筛查方法,异常者转诊阴道镜及病理诊断,病理诊断为金标准。采用筛查率、早诊率、早治率和行政费用率进行评价。结果2006年福田区教育局系统中小学教职工筛查率77．32％,紫薇社区人群筛查率18．56％,差异有统计学意义（X^2=3005．435,P=Q000）;两组人群早诊率100％,治疗率均在90％以上。2005～2008年深圳市妇幼保健院子宫颈癌机会性筛查干预后有连续增长趋势（X^2=1588．5503,P=nooo）。2004—2008年子宫颈癌早诊率年平均89．85％,5年早诊率差异无统计学意义（X^2=6．513,P=0．164）。2006～2008年治疗率明显增高（X^2=123．090,P=0.000）。机会性筛查行政费用率明显低于组织性筛查（X^2=30．626,P=0．000）。结论城市人群子宫颈筛查以工作单位或社区居委会计划生育服务站组织为佳;机会性筛查可做为城市人群子宫颈癌组织性筛查的重要补充,门诊医师的宣教可提高机会性筛查率;城市人群子宫颈癌筛查宜提倡组织性筛查与机会性筛查相结合。     

Enthusiasm for cancer screening in Great Britain: a general population survey

Background:

With growing concerns about risk of harm from cancer screening, particularly from overdiagnosis, this study aimed to assess public attitudes to cancer screening in Great Britain.

Methods:

We used a population-based survey to assess attitudes to cancer screening, screening history and demographic characteristics, in men and women aged 50–80 years. Data were collected using face-to-face computer-assisted interviews in 2012.

Results:

In our sample of 2024, attitudes to cancer screening were overwhelmingly positive with almost 90% believing that screening is ‘almost always a good idea'' and 49% saying they would be tested for cancer even if it was untreatable. Attitudes were particularly positive among those who had previously taken part in breast or colorectal screening.

Conclusions:

Our findings suggest that attitudes to cancer screening are very positive in Great Britain. Widespread enthusiasm for cancer screening may hamper attempts to encourage a greater appreciation of the limitations and potential harms of screening.     

Cancer screening in the United States, 2013

Answer questions and earn CME/CNE Each year the American Cancer Society (ACS) publishes a summary of its recommendations for early cancer detection, a report on data and trends in cancer screening rates, and select issues related to cancer screening. In this issue of the journal, current ACS cancer screening guidelines are summarized, as are updated guidelines on cervical cancer screening and lung cancer screening with low‐dose helical computed tomography. The latest data on the use of cancer screening from the National Health Interview Survey also are described, as are several issues related to screening coverage under the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act of 2010. CA Cancer J Clin 2013;. © 2013 American Cancer Society.     

Type of Breast Cancer Diagnosis,Screening, and Survival

IntroductionBreast cancer screening is known to reduce mortality. In the present study, we analyzed the prevalence of breast cancers detected through screening, before and after introduction of an organized screening, and we evaluated the overall survival of these patients in comparison with women with an extrascreening imaging-detected breast cancer or those with palpable breast cancers.Materials and MethodsWe collected data about all women who underwent a breast operation for cancer in our department between 2001 and 2008, focusing on type of tumor diagnosis, tumor characteristics, therapies administered, and patient outcome in terms of overall survival, and recurrences. Data was analyzed by R (version 2.15.2), and P < .05 was considered significant.ResultsAmong the 2070 cases of invasive breast cancer we considered, 157 were detected by regional mammographic screening (group A), 843 by extrascreening breast imaging (group B: 507 by mammography and 336 by ultrasound), and 1070 by extrascreening breast objective examination (group C). The 5-year overall survival in groups A, B, and C were, respectively, 99% (95% CI, 98%-100%), 98% (95% CI, 97%-99%), and 91% (95% CI, 90%-93%), with a significant difference between the first 2 groups and the third (P < .05) and a trend between groups A and B (P = .081).ConclusionThe diagnosis of invasive breast cancer with screening in our population resulted in a survival gain at 5 years from the diagnosis, but a longer follow-up is necessary to confirm this data.     

乳腺间期癌

目的 :调查 1996～ 1998年接受乳腺普查妇女的间期癌发病率 ,探讨乳腺癌普查间隔的合理时间。方法 :收集发生间期癌距离普查的时间、间期癌大小、腋淋巴结转移情况和病理诊断 ,并复习普查X线钼靶片。结果 :间期癌 2 5例 ,发病率为 0 .3‰ ,平均发病时间 (13.8± 5.9)个月。肿瘤最大径≤ 1.0cm者 1例 ,1.1～ 3.0cm 18例 ,3.1～ 5.0cm 4例 ,>5.0cm 1例 ,无肿块者 1例。临床分期 :Ⅰ期 2例 ,Ⅱ期 16例 ,Ⅲ期 7例。 7例腋淋巴结转移。病理类型均为浸润性癌。结论 :本文间期癌发病率低于国外资料报告 ,说明普查有效。 80 %的间期癌发生在 50岁以下的妇女。对 4 0岁以下妇女 ,若存在乳腺癌高危因素 ,普查间期宜改为每年 1次 ,可明显降低间期癌发病率。     

Role of mammography screening as a predictor of survival in postmenopausal breast cancer patients

We examined the effect of population-based screening programme on tumour characteristics by comparing carcinomas diagnosed during the prescreening (N=341) and screening (N=552) periods. We identified screen detected (N=224), interval (N=99) and clinical cancer (N=229) cases. Median tumour size and proportion of axillary lymph node negative cases were 1.5 cm and 65% in the screen detected group, 2.0 cm and 44% in cases found outside the screening, and 3.2 cm and 41% in the cases from the prescreening period. Survival of the breast cancer patients was 66% (95% CI, 60-71%) in the prescreening era group and 73% (95% CI, 66-78%) in the screening era group after 10 years of follow-up. In the screening era group the survival of the screen detected cases was 86% (95% CI, 80-90%) and that of the clinical cancer cases 73% (95% CI, 66-78%) after 10 years. In multivariate analysis the risk of breast cancer death was not significantly different between the prescreening and screening periods (HR 0.82; 95% CI 0.59-1.12, P=0.21). Detection by screening was not an independent prognostic factor in multivariate analysis (HR 0.75; CI 95% 0.50-1.12; P=0.17).     

Stage, grade and morphology of tumours of the colon and rectum recorded in the Oxford Cancer Registry, 1995-2003

Data on stage, grade and morphology of 12,761 colorectal cancers registered between 1995 and 2003 by Oxford Cancer Registry are reviewed. Dukes stage is recorded for 81% of colon cancers and for 69% of rectal cancers. Incomplete registry data and changing recording practices may affect future evaluation of bowel cancer screening.     

Breast cancer screening uptake in women at increased risk of developing hereditary breast cancer

This multicenter study assessed breast cancer screening uptake in 461 unaffected women at increased risk of developing breast cancer on the basis of family history who approached familial cancer clinics for advice about surveillance options. At the time of attending the clinic, 89% and 90% of participants were vigilant with respect to age- and risk-specific recommendations for mammography and clinical breast examination, respectively, and 51% reported practicing breast self-examination monthly or more frequently. The degree to which health outcomes are perceived to be under one's personal control (²=–2.09, p=0.0037) and breast cancer anxiety (²=8.11,p=0.044) were both associated with monthly or more frequent breast self-examination, while there were no associations with sociodemographic characteristics. A significantly lower percentage (56%) of women aged <30 were vigilant with respect to mammography recommendations, compared to 77%, 96% and 98% of women aged 30–39, 40–49 and >50, respectively (²=37.2,p<0.0001). These relatively low rates of mammographic screening in young women may reflect concerns about increased cancer risk associated with early and repeated radiation exposure or lack of sensitivity in young women with radiographically dense breasts. If mammographic screening is ultimately shown to lower mortality in women at high risk, there will be a strong case to promote screening in young women. The need for regular mammographic screening would then need to be highlighted and reinforced amongst young women and their referring physicians. Awareness amongst general practitioners, who are largely responsible for referral to screening services, would also need to be increased.