Host adaptation of pigeon isolates of Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Typhimurium variant Copenhagen phage type 99 is associated with enhanced macrophage cytotoxicity

Phage type 99 of Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Typhimurium variant Copenhagen strains isolated from pigeons were examined for the presence of genotypic and phenotypic characteristics. The pulsed-field gel electrophoresis patterns obtained with XbaI and BlnI from 38 pigeon strains were compared with those obtained from 89 porcine, poultry, and human strains of variant Copenhagen. Identical patterns with XbaI and four closely related patterns with BlnI were obtained with the pigeon strains, whereas 16 XbaI patterns were found with the other strains. The XbaI patterns of the pigeon strains showed a low genetic similarity to the patterns of the porcine, poultry, and human strains and invariably showed a low-molecular-weight band that was absent in the majority of the other strains. The virulence genes shdA, spvR, pefA, sopE, and spvB were uniformly present in six pigeon isolates representing the genetic diversity found with BlnI. These six pigeon-derived strains were highly cytotoxic for pigeon macrophages compared to three porcine strains. After experimental infection of pigeons with a pigeon strain, clinical symptoms, fecal shedding, and colonization of internal organs were more pronounced than those after infection with a porcine strain. These data suggest that the phage type 99 strains used in this study are highly adapted to pigeons and should be classified as a host-restricted lineage of the serovar Typhimurium.     

Molecular characterization of multidrug-resistant Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Typhimurium isolates from swine

As part of a longitudinal study of antimicrobial resistance among salmonellae isolated from swine, we studied 484 Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Typhimurium (including serovar Typhimurium var. Copenhagen) isolates. We found two common pentaresistant phenotypes. The first was resistance to ampicillin, chloramphenicol, streptomycin, sulfamethoxazole, and tetracycline (the AmCmStSuTe phenotype; 36.2% of all isolates), mainly of the definitive type 104 (DT104) phage type (180 of 187 isolates). The second was resistance to ampicillin, kanamycin, streptomycin, sulfamethoxazole, and tetracycline (the AmKmStSuTe phenotype; 44.6% of all isolates), most commonly of the DT193 phage type (77 of 165 isolates), which represents an unusual resistance pattern for DT193 isolates. We analyzed 64 representative isolates by amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) analysis, which revealed DNA fingerprint similarities that correlated with both resistance patterns and phage types. To investigate the genetic basis for resistance among DT193 isolates, we characterized three AmKmStSuTe pentaresistant strains and one hexaresistant strain, which also expressed resistance to gentamicin (Gm phenotype), all of which had similar DNA fingerprints and all of which were collected during the same sampling. We found that the genes encoding the pentaresistance pattern were different from those from isolates of the DT104 phage type. We also found that all strains encoded all of their resistance genes on plasmids, unlike the chromosomally encoded genes of DT104 isolates, which could be transferred to Escherichia coli via conjugation, but that the plasmid compositions varied among the isolates. Two strains (strains UT08 and UT12) had a single, identical plasmid carrying bla(TEM) (which encodes ampicillin resistance), aphA1-Iab (which encodes kanamycin resistance), strA and strB (which encode streptomycin resistance), class B tetA (which encodes tetracycline resistance), and an unidentified sulfamethoxazole resistance allele. The third pentaresistant strain (strain UT20) was capable of transferring by conjugation two distinct resistance patterns, AmKmStSuTe and KmStSuTe, but the genes were carried on plasmids with slightly different restriction patterns (differing by a single band of 15 kb). The hexaresistant strain (strain UT30) had the same plasmid as strains UT08 and UT12, but it also carried a second plasmid that conferred the AmKmStSuGm phenotype. The second plasmid harbored the gentamicin resistance methylase (grm), which has not previously been reported in food-borne pathogenic bacteria. It also carried the sul1 gene for sulfamethoxazole resistance and a 1-kb class I integron bearing aadA for streptomycin resistance. We also characterized isolates of the DT104 phage type. We found a number of isolates that expressed resistance only to streptomycin and sulfamethoxazole (the StSu phenotype; 8.3% of serovar Typhimurium var. Copenhagen strains) but that had AFLP DNA fingerprints similar or identical to those of strains with genes encoding the typical AmCmStSuTe pentaresistance phenotype of DT104. These atypical StSu DT104 isolates were predominantly cultured from environmental samples and were found to carry only one class I integron of 1.0 kb, in contrast to the typical two integrons (InC and InD) of 1.0 and 1.2 kb, respectively, of the pentaresistant DT104 isolates. Our findings show the widespread existence of multidrug-resistant Salmonella strains and the diversity of multidrug resistance among epidemiologically related strains. The presence of resistance genes on conjugative plasmids and duplicate genes on multiple plasmids could have implications for the spread of resistance factors and for the stability of multidrug resistance among Salmonella serovar Typhimurium isolates.     

Enhanced virulence of Salmonella enterica serovar typhimurium after passage through mice

The interaction between Salmonella enterica and the host immune system is complex. The outcome of an infection is the result of a balance between the in vivo environment where the bacteria survive and grow and the regulation of fitness genes at a level sufficient for the bacteria to retain their characteristic rate of growth in a given host. Using bacteriological counts from tissue homogenates and fluorescence microscopy to determine the spread, localization, and distribution of S. enterica in the tissues, we show that, during a systemic infection, S. enterica adapts to the in vivo environment. The adaptation becomes a measurable phenotype when bacteria that have resided in a donor animal are introduced into a recipient naïve animal. This adaptation does not confer increased resistance to early host killing mechanisms but can be detected as an enhancement in the bacterial net growth rate later in the infection. The enhanced growth rate is lost upon a single passage in vitro, and it is therefore transient and not due to selection of mutants. The adapted bacteria on average reach higher intracellular numbers in individual infected cells and therefore have patterns of organ spread different from those of nonadapted bacteria. These experiments help in developing an understanding of the influence of passage in a host on the fitness and virulence of S. enterica.Salmonella enterica is a facultative intracellular pathogen capable of causing a spectrum of diseases in humans and animals. Current treatments for S. enterica infections are insufficiently effective, and there is a need to develop novel vaccines and therapeutics. Development of these control strategies would benefit from a more sophisticated evaluation of how the bacteria maintain their growth/survival throughout the infection in the face of changes in the host environment that may also include activation of host immune responses.Infection of mice with Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium is an established model of systemic typhoid fever in humans. In systemic infections, S. enterica resides within phagocytes. Early after intravenous (i.v.) infection, a decrease in total viable bacterial numbers is observed in infected livers and spleens, as the result of a high rate of reactive oxygen radical-mediated killing that exceeds the bacterial division rate (6). After this initial phase, killing becomes negligible and the bacteria divide intracellularly at variable rates, depending on both the virulence of the infecting isolate and the level of resistance of the host (6, 7, 18). Growth of virulent S. Typhimurium in vivo is also associated with escape from infected macrophages and dissemination to other uninfected cells (1, 18). This is a necessary step for the overall net growth of the bacteria in the organs, results in the formation of new infection foci, and is likely to occur mainly as a consequence of necrosis of infected cells and establishment of new foci of infection by the released bacteria (1, 5).Despite activation of the immune system, S. enterica grows at a constant rate in the spleen and liver during the first week of a systemic infection. This suggests that there is an exquisitely balanced process by which S. enterica adapts to allow the bacteria to retain their characteristic rate of growth in the face of the increasingly hostile environment. We have also found that the host immune response poses restraints and bottlenecks that do not equally and/or simultaneously affect all the bacteria present in the various body compartments (6, 13). Taken together these results suggest that the maintenance of bacterial fitness in vivo may be due to the stochastic emergence of microbial populations that have adapted to the in vivo environment.In this study we set out to explore the possibility that during exposure to the in vivo environment, S. Typhimurium develops an increased ability to survive host killing and grow when reintroduced into a second naïve recipient host. We also tested whether the ability to phenotypically adapt to the in vivo environment is triggered by some of those factors that are known to be at the basis of the escalation of the host antimicrobial response. We have explored bacterial adaptation by transferring in vivo-grown bacterial populations from infected donor animals into naïve animals and by observing their growth/survival behavior and intracellular distributions within the tissues of the naïve recipient hosts. This work is a vital contribution toward our knowledge about the spatial and temporal dynamics of S. Typhimurium adaptation to the in vivo environment and the influence of growth and passage in a host on the fitness and virulence of S. Typhimurium.     

Molecular follow-up of Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Agona infection in cattle and humans

Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Agona was not frequently encountered in Finland until an increase in rates of isolation among animal and feed was seen in 1994. A small outbreak among cattle farms in the regions of Oulu and Vaasa in northwestern Finland in 1994-1995 included eight farms. After the outbreak, an increase in the number of serovar Agona infections in humans was seen in 1999: the number of annual microbiologically confirmed cases in humans increased from about 10 from 1990 to 1998 to 84 in 1999, including an outbreak in which more than 50 people were infected. To gather epidemiological data on serovar Agona and to trace the origin of the human infections, 110 serovar Agona isolates isolated from animal, feed, and other sources as well as from humans with cases of salmonellosis of domestic and foreign origin, which were recovered from 1984 to 1999, were analyzed for their pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE), plasmid, and IS200 profiles and antibiograms. Of these typing methods, PFGE with restriction endonucleases XbaI, BlnI, NotI, and SpeI was the most useful. The PFGE profile of the strain causing an outbreak among cattle in Finland in 1994-1995 was not seen previously. The strain with this profile was later only sporadically found in human infections. The profile of the strain causing the human outbreak in 1999 was not found among isolates from cattle or any other sources. Molecular typing was valuable in showing that although the outbreaks in cattle and humans seemed to be related regionally, they were not related otherwise.     

Fingerprinting of Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Enteritidis by ribotyping

Objective: To carry out an epidemiologic evaluation of Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Enteritidis outbreaks in households and small communities by means of rRNA gene restriction pattern analysis (ribotyping).
Method: One hundred Enteritidis isolates dating from 1989 to 1994 which could be allocated epidemiologically to different sources or to small community outbreaks were investigated with ribotyping, a fingerprinting method in which bacterial DNA is hybridized with the biotin-labeled plasmid pKK 3535 containing a ribosomal RNA operon of Escherichia coli to determine the ribosomal RNA gene restriction patterns.
Results: Four different ribotyping patterns were found with the restriction endonuclease Sma I and nine with Sph I. Ribotypes of isolates which could be allocated epidemiologically to a common source usually corresponded. Almost 60% of the Enteritidis infections had the ribotyping pattern Sph I-A. In contrast, this pattern was not found in any of the five Enteritidis strains isolated in 1989. The suspicion that Enteritidis phage type 4 infections are caused by consumption of insufficiently heated eggs is supported by the fact that the ribotyping pattern Sph 1-A was found in isolates from eggs and from human specimens.
Conclusions: As patterns Sph I-A and Sma I-J appeared in 58% and 75% of the isolates, respectively, ribotyping cannot be used for the differentiation between various outbreaks with these two patterns. In cases where the Enteritidis strains showed less frequent patterns, ribotyping seems to be a practical tool for the identification of infection chains. In addition newly appearing ribotyping patterns can give information about the epidemiologic development of Enteritidis infection.     

ERIC-PCR genotyping of field isolates of Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Gallinarum biovars Gallinarum and Pullorum

Salmonella Gallinarum (SG) and Salmonella Pullorum (SP) have been classified as biovars belonging to Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Gallinarum. Genetic diversity among isolates of the same biovar can be detected by DNA fingerprinting techniques which are useful in epidemiological investigations. In this study, we applied the PCR amplification of Enterobacterial Repetitive Intergenic Consensus sequences (ERIC-PCR) to analyse 45 strains of SG and SP, most of which were isolated from diseased poultry of different Brazilian regions over a period of 27 years until 2014. The ERIC-genotypes obtained were used to describe the epidemiological relationship amongst the strains. Our findings showed that there were six ERIC-patterns for SG strains at 80% similarity. In addition, some of the SG isolates recovered from different regions and years clustered with 100% similarity, suggesting that transfer of genotypes between these regions has taken place. The commercial rough vaccine strain 9R showed a unique profile. Meanwhile, more genetic diversity was observed among SP strains where ten ERIC-patterns were also formed at 80% similarity.     

Role of trehalose biosynthesis in environmental survival and virulence of Salmonella enterica serovar typhimurium

The otsA and otsB genes, encoding trehalose-6-phosphate synthase and trehalose-6-phosphate phosphatase respectively, have been isolated from Salmonella enterica serovar typhimurium and nucleotide-sequenced. Induction of trehalose biosynthesis by exposure of bacteria to high osmotic strength resulted in the intracellular accumulation of trehalose. An otsA mutant of S. enterica serovar typhimurium was more susceptible to killing by heat, and grew poorly under conditions of high osmolarity. The wild-type and otsA mutant strains showed similar abilities to colonise spleen tissues after oral dosing of mice. These findings suggest that the otsBA gene products play a role in environmental survival, but not in virulence, of S. enterica serovar typhimurium.     

Role of the high-affinity zinc uptake znuABC system in Salmonella enterica serovar typhimurium virulence

The Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium znuABC genes encoding a high-affinity zinc uptake system and its regulatory zur gene have been cloned. Salmonella serovar Typhimurium zur and znuC knockout mutants have been constructed by marker exchange. The 50% lethal dose of the znuC mutant increased when either orally or intraperitoneally inoculated in BALB/c mice, while virulence of the zur mutant decreased only when mice were intraperitoneally challenged.     

Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Agona infections in commercial pheasant flocks.

Infections in pheasant flocks due to Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Agona occurred in a commercial pheasant farm in 1995 and 2000. S. enterica serovar Agona isolates obtained from the affected birds in both years and an environmental sample from 1998 showed an identical pulsed-field gel electrophoresis pattern, indicating that the farm was continually contaminated with the strain during this period. Nine hundred and seventy-three of 1850 birds (56.2%) died at 4 to 5 days of age in 1995, whereas 80 of 2004 birds (4%) died at 15 to 25 days of age in 2000. Pericarditis were found in the birds in both years although infiltration of heterophils in the lesion was more remarkable in the birds in 2000 than those in 1995, indicating that the S. enterica serovar Agona infection in pheasants in 1995 may have led to the rapid death. These observations suggest that susceptibility of pheasants to S. enterica serovar Agona is age dependent.     

Characterization of isolates of Salmonella enterica serovar typhimurium displaying high-level fluoroquinolone resistance in Japan

Strains of the multidrug-resistant (MDR) Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium isolated in Japan were examined for high-level fluoroquinolone resistance. Since the first isolation in 2000 (described in reference 13), we have identified 12 human and 5 nonhuman isolates with high-level fluoroquinolone-resistance (ciprofloxacin MIC of 24 microg/ml or more). Most of these isolates shared some features including definitive phage type (DT 12/193), resistance type (ACSSuTNCp; resistant to ampicillin, chloramphenicol, streptomycin, sulfonamides, tetracycline, nalidixic acid, and ciprofloxacin), and genotype on pulsed-field gel electrophoresis that were different from those of the MDR S. enterica Typhimurium DT 104. Mutations in quinolone resistance-determining regions of gyrA and parC were also conserved in almost all of the isolates despite the absence of any apparent epidemiological relationships among cases. This suggests that a specific clonal group of the serovar Typhimurium with high levels of fluoroquinolone resistance is disseminating among animals and humans in Japan.     

Multiple-locus variable-number tandem repeat analysis for subtyping of Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Enteritidis

Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Enteritidis is a major food-borne pathogen that caused most of Salmonella infections worldwide. S. Enteritidis phage type 4 (PT4) especially presents a real challenge for the classical typing methods. We developed a simple multiple-locus variable-number tandem repeat analysis (MLVA) assay based on three hypervariable variable-number tandem repeat (VNTR) loci for subtyping of Salmonella Enteritidis. Testing an arbitrary chosen strain collection of 110 S. Enteritidis isolates, comprising PTs 4, 8, and 21, the MLVA assay yielded a higher discriminatory power, corresponding to a Simpson's index of diversity (ID) of 0.91, when compared to pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) which had a Simpson's ID of 0.41. To simplify interpretation of results, we developed a VNTR allele code based on the repeat unit number. This code can easily be exchanged. In conclusion, MLVA is a promising new tool to investigate outbreaks of S. Enteritidis and constitutes a useful addition to the current phage typing scheme.     

Atypical, fljB-negative Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica strain of serovar 4,5,12:i:- appears to be a monophasic variant of serovar Typhimurium

An fljB-negative, multidrug-resistant Salmonella enterica serovar 4,5,12:i:- phage type DT U302 strain (resistant to ampicillin, chloramphenicol, sulfonamide, gentamicin, streptomycin, tetracycline, and sulfamethoxazole-trimethoprim) emerged and spread in Spain in 1997. Sequences specific for Salmonella serovar Typhimurium and phage type DT 104 and U302 were present in this atypical Salmonella strain, suggesting that it is a monophasic Salmonella serovar Typhimurium variant.     

A functional cra gene is required for Salmonella enterica serovar typhimurium virulence in BALB/c mice

A minitransposon mutant of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium SR-11, SR-11 Fad(-), is unable to utilize gluconeogenic substrates as carbon sources and is avirulent and immunogenic when administered perorally to BALB/c mice (M. J. Utley et al., FEMS Microbiol. Lett., 163:129-134, 1998). Here, evidence is presented that the mutation in SR-11 Fad(-) that renders the strain avirulent is in the cra gene, which encodes the Cra protein, a regulator of central carbon metabolism.     

Subtyping of Salmonella enterica serovar typhimurium outbreak strains isolated from humans and animals in Iceland

A total of 75 Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium strains of various (mainly human and animal) origins were typed by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) and phage typing. These strains were collected during an outbreak in Iceland in 1999 and 2000. The typing revealed that 84% of the strains belonged to the same PFGE and phage type (PT), namely, PFGE type 1Aa and PT 1.     

Cystathionine beta-lyase is important for virulence of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium

The biosynthesis of methionine in bacteria requires the mobilization of sulfur from Cys by the formation and degradation of cystathionine. Cystathionine beta-lyase, encoded by metC in bacteria and STR3 in Schizosaccharomyces pombe, catalyzes the breakdown of cystathionine to homocysteine, the penultimate step in methionine biosynthesis. This enzyme has been suggested to be the target for pyridinamine antimicrobial agents. We have demonstrated, by using purified enzymes from bacteria and yeast, that cystathionine beta-lyase is not the likely target of these agents. Nonetheless, an insertional inactivation of metC in Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium resulted in the attenuation of virulence in a mouse model of systemic infection. This result confirms a previous chemical validation of the Met biosynthetic pathway as a target for the development of antibacterial agents and demonstrates that cystathionine beta-lyase is important for bacterial virulence.     

Evaluation and comparison of molecular techniques for epidemiological typing of Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar dublin.

A total of 28 unrelated isolates of the Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar dublin (S. dublin) collected during a 6-year period, as well as four samples of the S. dublin live vaccine strain Bovisaloral and its prototype strain S. dublin 442/039, were investigated by different molecular typing methods for the following reasons: (i) to find the most discriminatory method for the epidemiological typing of isolates belonging to this Salmonella serovar and (ii) to evaluate these methods for their capacity to discriminate among the live vaccine strain Bovisaloral, its prototype strain S. dublin 442/039, and field isolates of the serovar dublin. Five different plasmid profiles were observed; a virulence plasmid of 76 kbp as identified by hybridization with an spvB-spvC gene probe was present in all isolates. The detection of 16S rRNA genes and that of IS200 elements proved to be unsuitable for the epidemiological typing of S. dublin; only one hybridization pattern could be observed with each of these methods. The results obtained from macrorestriction analysis strongly depended on the choice of restriction enzyme. While the enzyme NotI yielded the lowest discriminatory index among all enzymes tested, it was the only enzyme that allowed discrimination between the Bovisaloral vaccine strain and its prototype strain. In contrast to the enzymes XbaI and SpeI, which only differentiated among the S. dublin field isolates, XhoI as well as AvrII also produced restriction fragment patterns of the Bovisaloral strain and of its prototype strain that were not shared by any of the S. dublin field isolates. Macrorestriction analysis proved to be the most discriminatory method not only for the epidemiological typing of S. dublin field isolates but also for the identification of the S. dublin live vaccine strain Bovisaloral.     

Molecular typing of Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Wien by rRNA gene restriction patterns.

Analysis of digested DNA from 40 Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Wien isolates revealed five different rRNA gene restriction patterns for HindIII (H1 to H5) and five for PstI (P1 to P5). The isolates had been selected on the basis of the year of isolation, the geographic origin and the antibiotic resistance pattern and were distinguished as follows: a) 13 pre-epidemic isolates from different French towns in 1958-69 and from Senegal in 1968; b) 7 epidemic isolates from Algiers in 1969; c) 20 post-epidemic isolates from different French and Italian towns in 1970-90. Three different rRNA patterns (H1P1, H3P3 and H4P4) were observed among the pre-epidemic isolates. Conversely, the epidemic isolates, which were characterized by the previously described large antibiotic resistance patterns and by the presence of 1.3 and 80-109 MDa plasmids, belonged to the same H1P1 ribotype. All but two post-epidemic isolates were of the H1P1 ribotype. The determination of rRNA gene restriction patterns together with the plasmid content proved to be useful for a better characterization of the serovar Wien endemic and epidemic isolates.     

Regulation of Salmonella enterica serovar typhimurium invasion genes by csrA

Penetration of intestinal epithelial cells by Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium requires the expression of invasion genes, found in Salmonella pathogenicity island 1 (SPI1), that encode components of a type III secretion apparatus. These genes are controlled in a complex manner by regulators within SPI1, including HilA and InvF, and those outside SPI1, such as the two-component regulators PhoP/PhoQ and BarA/SirA. We report here that epithelial cell invasion requires the serovar Typhimurium homologue of Escherichia coli csrA, which encodes a regulator that alters the stability of specific mRNA targets. A deletion mutant of csrA was unable to efficiently invade cultured epithelial cells and showed reduced expression of four tested SPI1 genes, hilA, invF, sipC, and prgH. Overexpression of csrA from an induced araBAD promoter also negatively affected the expression of these genes, indicating that CsrA can act as both a positive and a negative regulator of SPI1 genes and suggesting that the bacterium must tightly control the level or activity of CsrA to achieve maximal invasion. We found that CsrA affected hilA, a regulator of the other three genes we tested, probably by controlling one or more genetic elements that regulate hilA. We also found that both the loss and the overexpression of csrA reduced the expression of two regulators of hilA, hilC and hilD, suggesting that csrA exerts its control of hilA through one or both of these regulators. We further found, however, that CsrA could affect the expression of both invF and sipC independent of its effects on hilA. One additional striking phenotype of the csrA mutant, not observed in a comparable E. coli mutant, was its slow growth. Phenotypic revertants that had normal growth rates, while maintaining the csrA mutation, were common. These suppressed strains, however, did not recover the ability to invade cultured cells, indicating that the csrA-mediated loss of invasion cannot be attributed simply to poor growth and that the growth and invasion deficits of the csrA mutant arise from effects of CsrA on different targets.     

Salmonella enterica serovar typhimurium waaP mutants show increased susceptibility to polymyxin and loss of virulence In vivo

In Escherichia coli, the waaP (rfaP) gene product was recently shown to be responsible for phosphorylation of the first heptose residue of the lipopolysaccharide (LPS) inner core region. WaaP was also shown to be necessary for the formation of a stable outer membrane. These earlier studies were performed with an avirulent rough strain of E. coli (to facilitate the structural chemistry required to properly define waaP function); therefore, we undertook the creation of a waaP mutant of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium to assess the contribution of WaaP and LPS core phosphorylation to the biology of an intracellular pathogen. The S. enterica waaP mutant described here is the first to be both genetically and structurally characterized, and its creation refutes an earlier claim that waaP mutations in S. enterica must be leaky to maintain viability. The mutant was shown to exhibit characteristics of the deep-rough phenotype, despite its ability to produce a full-length core capped with O antigen. Further, phosphoryl modifications in the LPS core region were shown to be required for resistance to polycationic antimicrobials. The waaP mutant was significantly more sensitive to polymyxin in both wild-type and polymyxin-resistant backgrounds, despite the decreased negative charge of the mutant LPSs. In addition, the waaP mutation was shown to cause a complete loss of virulence in mouse infection models. Taken together, these data indicate that WaaP is a potential target for the development of novel therapeutic agents.     

Evaluation of antimicrobial activity of probiotic bacteria against Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar typhimurium 1344 in a common medium under different environmental conditions

The importance of probiotics in human nutrition has been gaining recognition in recent years. These organisms have been shown to promote human health by enhancing immunological and digestive functions and fighting respiratory tract infections. We propose an improved in vitro model for the study of probiotic antimicrobial activity against enteropathogens, by attempting to re-create, in a common culture medium, environmental growth conditions comparable to those present in the small intestine. A preliminary experiment was carried out in order to find a culture medium able to support both probiotics and pathogens. This was done with the aim of obtaining correct assessment of the interaction under shared growth conditions. BHI medium was selected as the common culture medium and was therefore used in antimicrobial activity assays. The interactions between Salmonella 1344 and Lactobacillus rhamnosus and Lactobacillus reuteri were then assessed at different pH and oxygen availability conditions mimicking the small intestinal environment. L. rhamnosus GG ATCC 53103 (LGG) had the strongest antimicrobial effect, in particular under anaerobic conditions and at lower pH levels. Its antagonistic activity involved both lactic acid and secreted non-lactic acid molecules. Our findings suggest that each probiotic strain has an optimum range of action and should therefore be thoroughly investigated to optimize its use.