The chemical status of cadmium ion in the placenta

The chemical status of cadmium ion in the chorioallantoic and yolk sac placentas of SWV strain mice during the critical phase of embryonic organogenesis was investigated. Twenty-four hours after a single teratogenic dose of cadmium ion, both placentas contained significant amounts of a macromolecular chelator. Gel filtration data and disc electrophoresis data suggest that the cadmium-binding macromolecule of the chorioallantois (which binds 61% of the cadmium ion content of the tissue) is a metallothionein dimer.     

Antimicrobial proteins of maternal and cord sera and human milk in relation to maternal nutritional status

Antimicrobial proteins in maternal and cord sera and sequential samples of human milk were studied in a group of 60 Chinese women to determine the degrees of passive immunity transferred from women of different nutritional status to their infants. Maternal malnutrition was characterized by low values for wt/ht2 and serum total protein and albumin. Maternal immunoglobulin (IgG) concentrations were not significantly different between well- and malnourished groups prepartum but were significantly different postpartum. Mean concentrations of cord IgG and lysozyme from well- and malnourished groups were not statistically different. During the first 7 d of lactation and most stages thereafter, mean concentrations of IgA; complements C3 and C4, and lysozyme in milk from the malnourished group were only half of those of the well-nourished group. Antimicrobial proteins transferred via milk to newborns may be influenced by the mother's nutritional status.     

Environmental exposures to lead and cadmium measured in human placenta

Pregnant women exposed to even low levels of environmental lead and cadmium may experience adverse perinatal effects. To evaluate the usefulness of the placenta for monitoring environmental lead and cadmium exposure, concentrations of both metals were measured in placentas (n = 86) with atomic absorption spectrometry. Environmental exposure was assessed in accordance with the degree of industrial activity and transport pollution near the places of residence. The authors found significantly higher lead and cadmium levels in placentas of women living in urban-industrial areas than in placentas of women living in rural areas. Lead concentrations in placenta reflect environmental exposures; smoking during gestation explained a large portion of placental cadmium. This finding suggests that when a pregnant woman is a heavy smoker, tobacco exposure masks environmental cadmium exposure, especially in areas with low levels of cadmium pollution.     

Dietary intake and iron status of Australian vegetarian women.

BACKGROUND: Despite the possible overall health benefits of a vegetarian diet, there is concern that some vegetarians and infrequent meat eaters, particularly females, may have inadequate iron status because of low or no heme-iron intakes. OBJECTIVE: The objective was to investigate the nutritional intake and iron status of vegetarian women. DESIGN: The nutritional intakes of 50 free-living vegetarian women aged 18-45 y and 24 age-matched omnivorous control women were assessed by using 12-d weighed dietary records. Iron status was assessed by measuring hemoglobin and serum ferritin concentrations. RESULTS: There was no significant difference between mean (+/-SD) daily iron intakes of vegetarians and omnivores (10.7 +/- 4.4 and 9.9 +/- 2.9 mg, respectively), although heme-iron intakes were low in the vegetarians. Vegetarians had significantly lower intakes of protein (P < 0.01), saturated fat (P < 0.01), and cholesterol (P < 0.001), and significantly higher intakes of dietary fiber (P < 0.001) and vitamin C (P < 0.05). Mean serum ferritin concentrations were significantly lower (P = 0.025) in vegetarians (25.0 +/- 16.2 microg/L) than in omnivores (45.5 +/- 42.5 microg/L). However, similar numbers of vegetarians (18%) and omnivores (13%) had serum ferritin concentrations <12 microg/L, which is a value often used as an indicator of low iron stores. Hemoglobin concentrations were not significantly different. CONCLUSION: It is important that both vegetarian and omnivorous women maintain an adequate iron status and follow dietary practices that enhance iron absorption.     

Role of the placenta in regulation of fetal iron status

During pregnancy, the developing fetus is entirely dependent on its mother for nutrition and waste disposal, which take place almost exclusively across the placenta. The placenta is, however, not just a passive mediator; it can also regulate the rates and amounts of nutrient transported. This is particularly true for iron transport. This review examines how the fetus, and not the mother, regulates iron uptake and transfer across the placenta, how these processes interact, and how the fetus can modulate iron metabolism in the mother.     

Risk of gestational diabetes mellitus in relation to maternal egg and cholesterol intake

Higher egg and cholesterol intakes are associated with increased risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus. However, their association with gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) has not been evaluated. The authors assessed such associations in both a prospective cohort study (1996-2008; 3,158 participants) and a case-control study (1998-2002; 185 cases, 411 controls). A food frequency questionnaire was used to assess maternal diet. Multivariable models were used to derive relative risks and 95% confidence intervals. Compared with no egg consumption, adjusted relative risks for GDM were 0.94, 1.01, 1.12, 1.54, and 2.52 for consumption of ≤1, 2-3, 4-6, 7-9, and ≥10 eggs/week, respectively (P for trend=0.008). Women with high egg consumption (≥7/week) had a 1.77-fold increased risk compared with women with lower consumption (95% confidence interval (CI): 1.19, 2.63). The relative risk for the highest quartile of cholesterol intake (≥294 mg/day) versus the lowest (<151 mg/day) was 2.35 (95% CI: 1.35, 4.09). In the case-control study, the adjusted odds ratio for consuming ≥7 eggs/week versus <7 eggs/week was 2.65 (95% CI: 1.48, 4.72), and the odds of GDM increased with increasing cholesterol intake (P for trend=0.021). In conclusion, high egg and cholesterol intakes before and during pregnancy are associated with increased risk of GDM.     

Cord serum and placental tissue iron status in maternal hypoferremia.

Studies on 85 mothers with term infants and 32 mothers with preterm infants revealed that the cord serum and placental tissue iron levels were significantly reduced (P less than 0.001) in the mothers with hypoferremia (serum iron less than or equal to 50 microgram/100 ml). These levels were found to have linear correlations with the maternal serum iron levels, suggesting that the fetus and the placenta extracted iron in amounts proportional to the levels available in the mother. The high serum iron values in cord blood compared to the maternal blood even in the mothers with hypoferremia suggested that the process of active transfer of iron from mother to the fetus was maintained in maternal iron deficiency.     

The accumulation of copper by microvillar vesicles isolated from human placenta.

Copper uptake from copper-dihistidine complexes by microvillar vesicles from human placenta was studied. Uptake occurred in two phases: a rapid initial binding followed by approximately linear uptake to equilibrium at approximately 5 min. The uptake showed temperature dependence, was saturable (apparent Vmax 10.5 +/- 1.6 nmol/(mg protein.4 min), apparent Km of 0.6 +/- 0.12 mumol/L) and decreased with increasing osmotic pressure, showing that the Cu uptake arose from accumulation within the vesicles and not from extravesicular binding or isotope exchange. Ceruloplasmin blocked uptake of 64Cu from 64Cu-dihistidine by the vesicles, with 50% inhibition achieved at a protein concentration of 5-10 mumol/L and a 64Cu-dihistidine concentration of 1.5 mumol/L. The effect was specific, because glucose oxidase, a noncopper protein, increased apparent uptake by binding copper and in turn being bound to the nitrocellulose membranes used to separate vesicles from incubation medium. Adding increasing concentrations of histidine also decreased uptake. The data presented indicate that the placenta can accumulate copper from copper-dihistidine, that ceruloplasmin can interfere with uptake and that this system will be very valuable in elucidating the first stage in transfer of copper across the placenta.     

Food diversity and nutrient intake during pregnancy in relation to maternal weight gain

BackgroundInadequate gestational weight gain has become a major problem for Algerian women and this is due to inadequate maternal nutrient intake and lack of food diversity. Our objective was to assess the caloric and nutrient intake, the nutritional adequacy of the diet of women during pregnancy and to appreciate their effects on gestational weight gain.MethodsA prospective cohort study of 300 pregnant women aged 19 to 43 years was conducted, from December 2013 to July 2016. Maternal age, parity, educational level, household income and pre-pregnancy body mass index were collected. Gestational weight gain was calculated and classified according to the IOM recommendations. Participants were asked to report the frequency of consumption of foods and beverages in the last trimester of gestation. Also, the estimation of energy and nutrient intakes was made by a three-day dietary record. Statistics were performed using StatviewTM and SPSS software.ResultsIntakes of energy, vitamines and minerals of women with insufficient weight gain were less than that of women with normal and excessive gain (P < 0.0001). Milk and dairy products (P = 0.0009), fruits and vegetables (P = 0.03), meats, fish and eggs (P = 0.0049) were significantly less consumed by women with insufficient gain. The lowest food diversification was more observed in women with insufficient gestational weight gain.ConclusionMost of the pregnant women had a poorly diversified diet and especially women with insufficient weight gain. Also, the intakes of energy, vitamins and minerals of women with insufficient gain were the lowest.     

Regulation of energy intake in relation to metabolic state and nutritional status

Inadequate energy intake can be an important contributor to weight loss in older individuals. This review highlights recent studies on possible causes of negative energy balance in older individuals. Studies of the regulation of food intake suggest that aging is associated with a significant impairment in the regulation of food intake that inhibits appropriate short-term and long-term compensation for imposed alterations in energy intake. The combination of a reduced ability to regulate energy intake, decreased sensory-specific satiety, and disadvantageous social factors such as functional limitations, social isolation and depression, increases the risk of negative energy balance leading to weight loss in older individuals.     

Lifestyle, nutrient intake, iron status, and pregnancy outcome in pregnant women of advanced maternal age

The purpose of this study was to investigate how advanced maternal age influences lifestyle, nutrient intake, iron status, and pregnancy outcomes in pregnant women. The subjects of this study were 112 pregnant women who were receiving prenatal care at gynecologists located in Seoul. The subjects were divided into two groups according to their ages: those over age 35 were the advanced age group of pregnant women (AP) and those under age 35 were the young age group of pregnant women (YP). General factors, nutrient intakes, iron status, and pregnancy outcomes of the two groups were then compared. It was found that 72.5% of the YP group and 51.2% of the AP group had pre-pregnancy alcohol drinking experience; indicating that the YP group had more pre-pregnancy alcohol consumption than the AP group (P < 0.05). The only difference found in nutrient intake between the two groups was their niacin intakes which were 16.83 ± 8.20 mg/day and 13.76 ± 5.28 mg/day, respectively. When gestational age was shorter than 38.7 weeks, the average infant birth weight was 2.95 ± 0.08 kg, and when gestational age was longer than 40 weeks, it averaged at about 3.42 ± 0.08 kg. In other words, as gestational age increased, infant birth weight increased (P < 0.0001), and when maternal weight increased more than 15 kg, the infant birth weight increased significantly (P < 0.05). In conclusion, in order to secure healthy human resources, with respect to advanced aged women, it is necessary to intervene by promoting daily habits that consist of strategic increases in folate and calcium intake along with appropriate amounts of exercise.     

Energy intake during pregnancy in relation to offspring gender by maternal height

Male newborns are somewhat heavier than female ones and it has been reported, in a Caucasian population, that mothers carrying boys have higher energy intake during pregnancy compared to those carrying girls. In the context of a prospective study comprising 150 Caucasian women in Boston, USA and 243 Asian women in Shanghai China, energy intake at the second trimester of pregnancy was estimated based on center-specific food frequency questionnaires. There was a significant interaction (P?=?0.01) of maternal height with offspring gender with respect to maternal daily energy intake. Among taller women, male gender of the offspring was associated with higher maternal energy intake (difference 341?kcal/day, 95% Confidence Interval 77-604; P?=?0.01), whereas among shorter women, no significant association existed between offspring gender and maternal daily energy intake (difference -213?kcal/day, 95% Confidence Interval -479 to 54; P?=?0.12). Our findings indicate that the higher somatic growth potential of boys in intrauterine life is realized only when there are no constrains imposed by maternal anthropometry and it is, then, associated with higher maternal energy intake during pregnancy.     

Cadmium exposure in pregnancy and lactation in relation to iron status

OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to determine the impact of iron status on cadmium dose among pregnant women. METHODS: Iron status and cadmium concentration in blood, urine, and placenta were determined among women followed for 2 years from early pregnancy. RESULTS: Blood cadmium and urinary cadmium were correlated with iron status throughout the study period. Urinary cadmium increased longitudinally among women with exhausted iron stores during their pregnancy. The increase in urinary cadmium with age was more pronounced in multiparous than in nulliparous women. CONCLUSIONS: Iron deficiency during pregnancy leads to increased cadmium absorption and body burden. Multiparous women exhibit additional increases with increasing age.     

Breast milk and adipose tissue fatty acid composition in relation to maternal dietary intake

The fatty acid (FA) relative concentration (g/100g) of human milk triglyceride (TG) was compared to that of adipose tissue (AT). A high concentration of linoleic acid (C-18:2) was present in AT, probably reflecting long term high linoleic acid dietary intake. Linoleic acid was slightly lower in colostrum and transitional milk. No difference in C-18:2 relative concentration was seen between AT and human milk obtained 6 weeks post-partum. Marked short-term dietary modification in linoleic acid intake of the mother, 6 weeks post-partum, did not result in changes in C-18:2 relative concentration of human milk. In spite of measured marked intradiurnal variability in C-18:2 intake, human milk TG FA relative concentration remained remarkably constant. It is suggested that human milk TG FA composition reflects, mainly, the composition of AT. With the increased dietary intake of polyunsaturated fat in many populations, high levels of linoleic acid in human milk are to be expected. The intake of this fatty acid may exceed the suggested daily allowance and thus cause harmful effects, particularly in preterm infants.     

HFE genotype modifies the influence of heme iron intake on iron status

BACKGROUND: Public health policy to prevent iron deficiency through food fortification or other measures may be disadvantageous to people with hereditary hemochromatosis. METHODS: From a cohort of U.K. women, 2531 women were typed for C282Y and H63D mutations in the hemochromatosis gene. These women completed food frequency questionnaires and provided blood for iron status. RESULTS: C282Y homozygotes (n=31) had serum ferritin concentrations 2.4 times higher (95% confidence interval=1.9-3.1) than wild types (n=1774), but heterozygotes (n=726) were not different from wild types. H63D genotype had no effect on its own. The effect of heme iron intake (from meat, fish, and poultry) was 2.0 times greater (1.2-3.2) on C282Y homozygotes than other groups. Nonheme iron had little effect. CONCLUSIONS: There may be scope for dietary intervention in women homozygous for the C282Y mutation. C282Y heterozygotes and H63D homozygotes and heterozygotes have similar serum ferritin concentrations to wild type and need not reduce their meat intake other than as part of a normal healthy diet.     

Adverse birth outcomes in relation to maternal marital and cohabitation status in Canada

Purpose

An increasing percentage of children are born to couples who cohabit but are not legally married. Using data from a nationally representative Canadian sample, we estimated associations of maternal marital and cohabitation status with stillbirth, infant mortality, preterm birth (PTB), and small- and large-for-gestational-age (SGA and LGA) birth.

Nutrient intake and iron status of Australian male vegetarians

OBJECTIVE: The study was designed to investigate the iron intake and status of Australian, male vegetarians aged between 20 and 50 y. DESIGN: Cross-sectional comparison of male vegetarians and age/sex matched omnivores. SETTING: Free-living community subjects. SUBJECTS: 39 ovolactovegetarians, 10 vegans and 25 omnivores were recruited by local advertisement. OUTCOME MEASURES: A 12-d semiquantitative dietary record to assess iron and zinc intake. Iron status was assessed by measurement of serum ferritin and haemoglobin concentrations. RESULTS: Mean (s.d.) daily iron intakes of both the ovolactovegetarians (20.4 (7.7) mg/d) and vegans (22.9 (6.2) mg/d), were significantly higher than the omnivores' intake of 15.8 (4.5) mg/d. Ovo-lactovegetarians and vegans had significantly (P < 0.001 and P < 0.05, respectively) lower serum ferritin concentrations than omnivores: mean (s.d.): 64 (46.9), 65 (49.9) and 121 (72.5) ng/ml, respectively. Significantly more ovolactovegetarians and vegans than omnivores had serum ferritin concentrations below 25 ng/ml and below 12 ng/ml (P < 0.05). A higher proportion of omnivores had concentrations above 200 ng/ml (P < 0.05). The differences in serum ferritin concentrations between the vegetarians and omnivores remained significant even after exclusion of iron supplement users. CONCLUSION: Australian male vegetarians had iron intakes higher than those of omnivores and above recommended levels, but their iron status was significantly lower.