Pediatric spine and spinal cord injury after inflicted trauma

Pediatric spine and spinal cord injury are rare sequelae of intentional trauma. They may easily be overlooked, however, and probably represent an underreported phenomenon. Recent autopsy data analyzed in conjunction with prior case series indicate that injury to the upper cervical spine and brainstem may significantly contribute to the major morbidity, mortality, and neuropathology in shaken infants. The findings in the previous case report illustrate several important points regarding spine and spinal cord injury after intentional trauma. First, the very young are susceptible to severe, higher cervical injury of both spine and spinal cord. Second, spine and spinal cord injury were initially overlooked because of masked neurologic findings with the concomitant head injury and multiple other systemic injuries. Finally, the child's outcome with significant cognitive delay because of global brain injury in conjunction with the focal high cervical cord injury may support the hypothesis that hypoxic damage could have occurred secondary to brainstem and high cervical cord injury. At the authors' institution, a detailed history and vigilant physical examination are stressed. When the mechanism of injury reported in the history is incongruous with the physical or initial radiographic findings and intentional trauma is suspected, a full skeletal survey, ophthalmologic evaluation, and social evaluation is undertaken. MRI and CT scanning are individualized according to the clinical assessment.     

Blunt cervical spine trauma as a cause of spinal cord injury and delayed cortical blindness

STUDY DESIGN: Case report. OBJECTIVE: To present and discuss the case of a patient who sustained a significant flexion compression injury of the cervical spine with resulting tetraplegia and development of cortical blindness. SETTING: National Spinal Injuries Unit and Institute of Neurological Sciences, Southern General Hospital, Glasgow, Scotland, UK. METHODS: Clinical and radiological follow-up of the patient. RESULTS: Cortical blindness resulted from vertebral artery dissection associated with blunt cervical spine trauma. The patient is registered blind and is ventilator dependent. CONCLUSION: The potential complications of blunt vertebral artery injury remain poorly recognised. Screening is routinely not performed. Advances in noninvasive radiological techniques may result in recognition of asymptomatic disease and the potential for therapeutic intervention.     

Assessment for additional spinal trauma in patients with cervical spine injury

An institutional review board-approved 8-year retrospective trauma registry analysis of cervical spine injuries (CSIs) was done in a Level 1 trauma center. This analysis includes 129 CSI patients (1.3% of trauma admissions). Cervical spine radiographs diagnosed injuries in 71 per cent of CSI patients. Cervical spine radiographs were false negative in 29 per cent of patients, who were found to have CSI on spine CT. Spine CT had 98 per cent sensitivity and detected 45 per cent additional injuries in cervical spine radiograph-positive patients. Spine CT scans were false negative in two patients with soft tissue injury. Cervical spine fractures were isolated in 45 per cent (n = 58) and multilevel in 55 per cent (n = 71) with contiguous fractures in 43 per cent (n = 55) of patients. Injuries involved two adjoining vertebrae in 38 patients and three or more adjoining vertebrae in 7 patients. C1-2 and C5-6 comprised 26 per cent and 20 per cent of all contiguous fractures. The least common was C7-T1, diagnosed in 2 per cent. The most common contiguous fractures were C1-2 in the elderly and C5-6 in children, comprising half of contiguous cervical injuries in the respective age groups. There were 26 (20.2%) noncontiguous injuries: 15 cervical and 11 cervicothoracolumbar. Multiple regions of the vertebral column were involved in 7.8 per cent of CSI patients. Spine CT is the preferred modality to assess CSI. Injuries were isolated in 45 per cent and were multilevel in the remaining CSI patients. Contiguous and noncontiguous injuries involving the cervical and thoracolumbar spine are common. Assessment of the entire spinal column should be done in patients with CSI.     

前路减压治疗下颈椎颈髓损伤并截瘫

目的探讨下颈椎颈髓损伤手术及疗效以及影响疗效的因素。方法采用颈椎前路减压自体腓骨植骨融合治疗下颈惟颈髓损伤高位截瘫36例。结果18例随访2～8年．平均5年7个月按ASIA损伤分级，Ⅰ级14例，术后无效1例，术后恢复至Ⅱ级4例．Ⅲ级3例，Ⅳ级4例．Ⅴ级2例；Ⅱ级4例，术后恢复至Ⅲ级Ⅰ例，Ⅳ级2例．Ⅴ级1例；Ⅲ级6例．术后恢复至Ⅳ级3例．Ⅴ级3例；Ⅳ级4例．术后全部恢复至Ⅴ级。提示伤后8h内手术最佳时机。结论采用颈椎前路减压植骨融合治疗下颈惟颈髓损伤效果肯定。     

上颈椎失稳并脊髓不全损伤的外科治疗

目的讨论上颈椎失稳并脊髓不全损伤的诊断和治疗方法。方法男116例，女76例，平均年龄41岁。齿突骨折47例(新鲜骨折38例，陈旧性骨折9例)，Hangman骨折45例(新鲜骨折28例，陈旧性骨折17例)，寰椎横韧带断裂24例，先天畸形23例，寰椎单侧椎弓骨折19例，类风湿性关节炎17例，一侧关节凸骨折9例，Jefferson骨折并慢性不稳3例，肿瘤4例。齿突螺钉固定29例，颈2-3椎间融合10例，寰枢椎Apofix固定融合27例，颈枕融合Axis固定29例、Cervifix固定36例，Simmos寰枢固定融合32例，Brooks固定融合8例，钢丝加关节突螺钉固定8例：经椎弓根加压螺钉固定，植骨融合4例，其他方法1例。结果平均随访4年9个月。189例获得骨性愈合，延迟愈合3例，钢丝断裂2例，椎体移位1例。椎动脉损伤6例次，神经根损伤12例次，退钉10枚。JOA改善率79．9％，无脊髓损伤加重者。结论恰当的手术方法是治疗的基础，内固定物的选择可减少并发症.     

Severity of cervical spine ligamentous injury correlates with mechanism of injury,not with severity of blunt head trauma

Clearance of the cervical spine (CS) in obtunded trauma patients in an intensive care unit is problematic. Patients with no osseous injuries have potential unstable extradural supportive soft tissue injury. Evaluation of the supporting structures involves dynamic fluoroscopy or MRI both of which have inherent risks and convenience issues. Defining which of these patients are at highest risk for severe supportive structure injury may improve resource utilization for CS clearance. The purpose of this study was to evaluate clinical factors that may predict the probability of CS supportive soft tissue injury in patients with traumatic brain injury. Patients who sustained traumatic brain injury with intracranial pathology, absence of CS osseous injury, and a limited cervical spine MRI within 72 hours of injury were included. Potential clinical predictors included the severity of the traumatic brain injury defined by the Abbreviated Injury Severity Score for the cerebrum and initial Glasgow Coma Scale, the Injury Severity Score (ISS), mechanism of injury, and high versus low-velocity mechanism. Severity of soft tissue/ligament injury was graded by MRI findings. One hundred twenty-five patients met the study criteria; 81 had negative MRI findings and in 44 the MRI study was positive for potentially unstable injuries. High-velocity mechanisms of injury and ISS--not the severity of the traumatic brain injury or initial Glasgow Coma Scale score--were statistically significant predictors of severe CS supportive soft tissue injuries. Obtunded blunt trauma patients who have been involved in high-velocity-mechanism incidents and have high ISS are at greatest risk for extradural supportive soft tissue CS injuries. These patients should either remain in CS immobilization until clinical evaluation can be completed or undergo further evaluation of their supportive soft tissue structures by MRI or fluoroscopic flexion/extension.     

Spinal cord injury in cervical spinal stenosis by minor trauma

BackgroundThe size of the spinal canal is a factor that contributes to the neurologic deficits associated with cervical OPLL and CSM. We investigate the development of neurologic deterioration after minor trauma and the clinical results of decompressive surgery in cervical spinal stenosis retrospectively.MethodWe treated 200 cases (98 cervical OPLLs and 102 CSMs) of cervical spinal stenosis for 8 years. There were 63 (33.5%) minor trauma cases to the cervical spine in 200 patients. Of these 63 patients, 18 developed myelopathy, 13 showed deterioration of preexisting myelopathy, and no neurologic change was observed in 32 patients. The neurologic status was assessed by the JOA score. The patients were divided into 2 groups according to the residual cervical spinal canal diameter: group I (<10 mm cervical spinal canal) and group II (≥10 mm cervical spinal canal).ResultsNeurologic outcome depended on the diameter of the residual spinal canal; 22 of the 25 patients in group I developed neurologic deterioration, whereas that occurred in 8 of the 38 patients in group II (P < .05). After surgical decompression, 8 patients in group I and 30 patients in group II came out with an improved JOA score of more than 50% (P < .05).ConclusionEven indirect minor trauma to the neck can cause irreversible changes in the spinal cord if there is marked stenosis of the cervical spinal canal. It may be beneficial to check lateral radiograph of the cervical spine as a screening tool for early detection of cervical spinal stenosis especially in Asian people older than 40 years.     

上颈椎类风湿关节炎与脊髓损伤

目的 对颈椎类风湿关节炎累及枕颈部或寰枢椎的患者行颈后路植骨融合内固定治疗。方法 对本组17例颈椎类风湿关节炎的患者（神经功能损害按Ranawat分级：Ⅱ级5例、ⅢA级10例、ⅢB级2例）,行颈后路植骨融合内固定术,其中4例垂直半脱位（VS）患者和4例难复性寰枢椎半脱位（AAS）患者行枕颈减压融合内固定术、9例可复性或复位效果较好的AAS患者行钛缆寰枢椎融合固定术。结果 随访1．5～7．5年（平均3．5年）,17例均获骨性融合,15例患者的神经功能获不同程度改善,2例虽无改善但亦无神经损伤加重。结论 早期寰枢椎或枕颈部稳定手术,似可有效减缓颈椎类风湿关节炎（RA）的炎症破坏过程;同时发现RA病程仍呈进行性,但术后17例患者的齿突周围血管翳较术前明显减小。     

陈旧性颈椎过伸伤伴脊髓损伤的临床研究

目的 探讨陈旧性颈椎过伸伤伴脊髓损伤患者的临床特点及其转归.方法 回顾性分析30例陈旧性颈椎过伸伤患者的临床资料,从损伤到就诊时间为3个月～8年,根据就诊时间分为三组,第1组:3～6个月,17例;第2组:6～12个月,8例;第3组:12个月～8年,5例.分别在术前、术后3个月、术后1年进行JOA评分,观察神经功能的改善率,比较各组的恢复情况.26例行颈椎前路减压植骨内固定术,4例行颈椎后路减压植骨内固定术.结果 三组之间的患者例数构成存在显著性差异.30例均获随访,随访时间18～39个月,平均23个月.术后1年,第1组平均改善率为23.8%,第2组平均改善率为53.9%,第3组平均改善率为54.3%.术后3个月、术后1年,第1组和第2组、第1组和第3组的JOA评分存在显著性差异,第2组和第3组无显著性差异.结论 陈旧性颈椎过伸伤伴迟发性脊髓损伤的发生在时间上有逐渐减少的趋势,迟发性脊髓损伤发生越早的患者损伤越严重,手术后的恢复越差.     

Predicting the risk and severity of acute spinal cord injury after a minor trauma to the cervical spine

Background contextAcute spinal cord injury (SCI) after a minor trauma to the cervical spine has been reported in patients without preceding neurologic symptoms. Spinal canal stenosis may be the reason for the discrepancy between the severity of the injury and that of the trauma. The spinal canal to vertebral body ratio is often used to assess canal stenosis on conventional radiographs. However, the ratio does not appraise soft-tissue stenosis and canal narrowing at the level of the intervertebral disc. Parameters measured on magnetic resonance (MR) images may thus be more meaningful. The relevance of MR image parameters for predicting the risk and severity of acute SCI in patients after a minor trauma to the cervical spine has not yet been established.PurposeTo investigate MR image parameters of the cervical spine in patients suffering from acute SCI after a minor trauma to the cervical spine. To investigate the use of these parameters for predicting the risk and severity of acute cervical SCI after a minor trauma to the cervical spine.Study design/settingRetrospective radiological study of consecutive patients.Patient sampleFifty-two patients suffering from acute cervical SCI and 131 patients showing no neurologic deficits after a minor trauma to the cervical spine.Outcome measuresOn sagittal MR images: vertebral body diameter, midvertebral canal diameter, disc-level canal diameter, and spinal cord diameter. On lateral conventional radiographs: vertebral body diameter and midvertebral canal diameter.MethodsConventional lateral radiographs and sagittal T2-weighted MR images of the cervical spine (C3–C7) were analyzed. The following calculations were performed using measurements from MR images: the spinal canal to vertebral body ratio, the space available for the cord, and the canal-to-cord ratio. Using measurements from conventional radiographs, the spinal canal to vertebral body ratio was determined. Receiver-operating curves were calculated for evaluating the classification accuracy of the different parameters for predicting the risk, severity, and course of SCI.ResultsAll investigated MR image parameters in the SCI group were significantly (p<.001) smaller compared with the control group. However, there was no significant (p>.9) difference in any parameter among the different American Spinal Injury Association impairment score groups. A cutoff value of 8.0 mm for the minimal sagittal disc-level canal diameter yielded the largest positive predictive value and likelihood ratio for predicting SCI.ConclusionsPatients at risk of acute SCI after a minor trauma to the cervical spine can be identified by applying a disc-level canal diameter cutoff value (measured on MR images) of 8 mm. Additional factors to the radiological characteristics of the spinal canal affect the severity of acute SCI after a minor trauma to the cervical spine.     

下颈椎骨折脱位并脊髓损伤的前路手术治疗

目的:探讨颈椎前路手术在治疗下颈椎骨折脱位并脊髓损伤中的复位率及临床疗效.方法:2006年1月～2011年1月,我院采用前路手术治疗下颈椎骨折脱位伴脊髓损伤患者196例,168例患者资料完整并获得随访,男123例,女45例,年龄18～71岁,平均38.7岁.ASIA分级A级21例,B级46例,C级60例,D级41例;按脱位程度Ⅰ度79例,Ⅱ度42例,Ⅲ度31例,Ⅳ度16例.所有患者术前先行小重量颅骨牵引(2～4kg),随后在全麻下行颈椎前路手术进一步复位,先行损伤节段椎间盘切除,以Caspar撑开器撑开复位;不能复位者,行脱位椎体次全切除,再次复位;仍不能复位者,则一期行后路松解,再行前路手术.结果:168例中经颈前路手术复位者为88.1％(148/168),其余11.9％(20/168)则通过前路-后路-前路手术获得复位.89.9％(151/168)获得了完全复位,10.1％(17/168)获得了90％以上的复位.平均随访30.7个月,死亡19例,失访9例,140例仍在随访中.术后6个月均获得骨性融合,颈椎椎间高度和生理曲度维持良好,无钢板螺钉并发症.术后发生声音嘶哑4例,咽喉疼痛17例,髂骨取骨区麻木18例,给予对症治疗后均好转.术后153例脊髓损伤者神经功能获得改善.结论:下颈椎骨折脱位并脊髓损伤,可通过前路手术治疗使颈椎获得即刻的稳定,防止继发性脊髓损伤,改善脊髓的功能状况.     

The Torg-Pavlov ratio for the prediction of acute spinal cord injury after a minor trauma to the cervical spine

Background contextAcute cervical spinal cord injury (SCI) has been observed in some patients after a minor trauma to the cervical spine. The discrepancy between the severity of the trauma and the clinical symptoms has been attributed to spinal canal stenosis. However, to date, there is no universally established radiological parameter for identifying critical spinal stenosis in these patients. The spinal canal–to–vertebral body ratio (Torg-Pavlov ratio) has been proposed for assessing developmental spinal canal stenosis. The relevance of the Torg-Pavlov ratio for predicting the occurrence and severity of acute cervical SCI after a minor trauma to the cervical spine has not yet been established.PurposeTo investigate the Torg-Pavlov ratio values of the cervical spine in patients suffering from acute cervical SCI after a minor trauma to the cervical spine and the use of the Torg-Pavlov ratio for identifying patients at risk of cervical SCI and predicting the severity and course of symptoms.Study design/settingRetrospective radiological study of consecutive patients.Patient sampleForty-five patients suffering from acute cervical SCI and 68 patients showing no neurologic symptoms after a minor trauma to the cervical spine.Outcome measuresMidvertebral sagittal cervical spinal canal diameter and the sagittal vertebral body diameter. Calculation of the Torg-Pavlov ratio values.MethodsConventional lateral radiographs of the cervical spine (C3–C7) were analyzed to determine the Torg-Pavlov ratio values. Receiver operating characteristic curves were calculated for evaluating the classification accuracy of the Torg-Pavlov ratio for predicting SCI.ResultsThe Torg-Pavlov ratio values in the SCI group were significantly (p<.04) smaller compared with that in the control group. A Torg-Pavlov ratio cutoff value of 0.7 yielded the greatest positive likelihood ratio for predicting the occurrence of SCI. However, there were no significant differences in the Torg-Pavlov ratio values between the different American Spinal Injury Association Impairment Score groups and between patients with complete, partial, and no recovery of symptoms.ConclusionsDevelopmental cervical spinal canal stenosis assessed by the Torg-Pavlov ratio was characteristic for patients suffering from acute cervical SCI after a minor trauma to the cervical spine. Patients at risk of SCI after a minor trauma to the cervical spine can be identified by applying a Torg-Pavlov ratio cutoff value of 0.7. Other factors in addition to the spinal canal–to–vertebral body ratio affect the severity and course of symptoms as a result of cervical SCI.     

Acute cervical spinal cord injury

Conclusion The problem of successful management of the acute spinal cord injured and particularly at the cervical level can only be solved by a highly skilled and closely knit team on a regional basis (Fig. 3). That team includes the man in the street who must know more of the facts about the injury and rescue, the first aid and ambulance personnel and hospital staff at all levels. Ransahoff and his colleagues in 1972 have emphasized this policy from New York. This then is partly an educational and organisational exercise and one also of optimism on the basis of a better understanding of the dynamic pathology of cervical spinal cord injury. Nevertheless, one has to be realistic about the severe disruptive lesion of the cord. These patients cannot recover whatever research and skilled management is done. The research investment for this group must be in prevention of the severity of injury or, better, of accidents in general. If we cannot prevent the first accident then we must avoid the second by mishandling during those vital minutes and hours after injury.The results of pursuing a policy of the earliest reference and closed reduction of cervical spinal cord injuries are promising and indicate that this policy should be maintained with vigour (Pigs. 8 to 11a, b, c, and d).     

下颈椎外伤后脊髓继发性损伤的防治策略

目的：探讨和总结下颈椎外伤后脊髓继发性损伤的防治策略。方法：2004年4月至2009年4月对67例下颈椎外伤后脊髓继发性损伤的患者进行回顾性分析,其中男47例,女20例;年龄18～69岁,平均40.5岁。入院后采取甲基强的松龙(MP)和神经节苷酯(GM-1)等药物应用、早期手术减压、术后高压氧的治疗等措施预防脊髓继发性损伤。神经功能依据Frankel分级,疗效评定采用总恢复率和有用恢复率。总恢复率为Frankel分级升高1级及1级以上者,有用恢复率为患者恢复到可以行走或可以扶拐行走,但残留某种神经功能障碍者,指Frankel分级D和E 级。结果：63例获得随访,时间1～3年,平均1.5年。患者总恢复率为53.7%(36/67),有用恢复率为35.8%(24/67);死亡7例,加重1例。结论：及时应用甲基强的松龙(MP)、神经节苷酯(GM-1)等药物,早期手术减压,术后高压氧治疗可以有效地防治颈椎外伤后脊髓的继发性损伤;术前减少不必要搬动,术中谨慎操作也可减少医源性脊髓损伤的发生。     

Vertebral artery injury in cervical spine trauma

Forty-seven patients with cervical spine trauma were evaluated prospectively with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and angiography (MRA) to determine the incidence of vertebral artery injury. Twelve patients (25%) had vertebral artery injuries (one bilateral), and occlusion was identified in nine patients and dissection in four. The vertebral artery injury did not result in neurological dysfunction. No specific treatment was instituted for the vascular injury, and in four patients, MRA showed no evidence of recanalization at follow-up.     

Coincidence of head and cervical spine injury

The association of head and cervical spine injury has long been recognized. Reports of the coincidence of these injuries in the literature range from 1.2 to 19%. This study was undertaken to determine the coincidence and examine the mechanisms of head and cervical spine injuries at a major trauma hospital. All cases of cervical spine injury (CSI) and head injury (HI) admitted to The Detroit Receiving Hospital during 1987 were identified using the hospital computer data bank and spine unit log book. There were 359 admissions for CSI including concussion, skull fracture, and intracranial hemorrhage. There were 92 admissions for CSI including complete or incomplete neurologic syndromes with fractures. There were 22 patients with both HI and CSI. Thus the coincidence of "primary" CSI with HI (both/CSI) is 24% while the coincidence of primary HI with CSI (both/HI) is 6%. The variety of injuries is demonstrated with appropriate imaging studies. Our study supports the view that all seriously head-injured patients should be treated as if a concomitant cervical spine injury is present until proven otherwise. It also shows that nearly one-quarter of patients with cervical spine injury have also experienced head injury. This coincidence may be an important consideration in the rehabilitation of such injured patients.