Cervical Cancer Screening in the United Kingdom, 1986 to 1996: A Decade of Change

Screening far cervical cancer started in the United Kingdom in the mid’-1960s, mainly as a clinically-led service offered by gynaecologists on an opportunistic basis to women who attended for reproductive care. By the early 1980s, the mortality rate was eight per 100,000 women, which compared unfavourably with other developed countries. In 1986, the National Audit Office to the Parliamentary Committee of Public Accounts urged the introduction of comprehensive screening using computerized call and recall systems. In 1988, the National Coordinating Network of the NHS Cervical Screening Programme (NHSCSP) was set up. The history and complexity of organizing the NHSC-SP and the accomplishments to date are described in this paper.     

2005年中国12家医院宫颈癌机会性筛查资料分析

目的:探讨中国不同地区进行宫颈癌机会性筛查的价值.方法:收集分析2005年全国12家医院门诊进行宫颈癌机会性筛查(oppommistic screening,OS)的资料,筛查方法包括液基细胞学、巴氏细胞学、高危型HPV检测,以及中国癌症基金会推荐的Ⅰ方案(液基细胞学检查加高危型HPV DNA检测)、Ⅱ方案(巴氏涂片加高危型HPV DNA检测)、Ⅲ方案(醋酸白肉眼检查法);并经阴道镜检查,病理确诊宫颈病变及宫颈癌.结果:共收治门诊患者1242952例次,其中接受OS202231例次,占门诊例次16.27%.筛查方法依次为液基细胞学84082例(41.58%),巴氏细胞学79426例(39.27%),Ⅰ方案23658例(11.70%),Ⅱ方案6504例(3.22%),检测HPV筛查者5976例(2.96%);Ⅲ方案2585例(1.28%).最普遍采用的筛查方法是细胞学检查(液基及巴氏方法)占95.76%.检出宫颈癌前病变(CIN Ⅰ+CIN Ⅱ+CIN Ⅲ)共5146例(2.54%),宫颈癌1134例(0.56%).结论:医院内就诊人群宫颈病变检出率高,应高度重视其机会性筛查,及时进行规范性治疗.     

Implementation of Comprehensive Screening for Cervical Cancer in Canada: Impediments and Facilitators

Cervical cancer screening has been available in Canada for over 50 years, and numerous task forces and workshops have recommended that organized screening programmes should be implemented. Despite this, the majority of screening in Canada take place in an opportunistic fashion and cervical cancer still occurs in 1996. This paper describes the history of screening in Canada and the current activity at provincial and national levels. It also identifies the impediments to the development of comprehensive screening programmes as recommended over the years. Factors which can act as facilitators to the implementation of such programmes and the role of physicians in achieving them are also identified. Currently, at a national level, a Cervical Cancer Prevention Network has been formed. This is an informal association of provincial and federal health department representatives with the College of Family Physicians of Canada, die Canadian Society of Cytology, the Society of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists of Canada, the Gynaecologic Oncologists of Canada, and the Society of Canadian Colposcopists. The purpose is to facilitate the development of quality organized screening programmes in all provinces and territories.     

宫颈癌住院患者10年临床特点变化及筛查作用探讨

目的:探讨10年来宫颈癌住院患者的临床特点变化及"两癌筛查"开展5年以来宫颈癌筛查的作用。方法:回顾性分析2005年1月至2014年12月在北京大学第一医院妇产科确诊为宫颈癌的718例住院患者的临床资料,按户籍所在地分为北京市和外省市两组;按"两癌筛查"前后分为2005~2009年组和2010~2014年组,分别比较基础资料、诊断途径及肿瘤分期等临床特点。结果:110年来我院收治的宫颈癌患者数量呈上升趋势。北京市患者的平均发病年龄、结婚年龄、初产年龄均高于外省市(P0.05),而中位孕次和产次均低于外省市(P0.05)。北京市患者中体检发现比例和ⅠA期患者比例均高于外省市(P0.05)。2"两癌筛查"前后各项指标的比较中,仅筛查后的发病年龄高于筛查前(P0.05),其他项目的比较差异均无统计学意义(P0.05)。3北京市患者中以西城区患者最多。外省市患者前3位是河北省、内蒙古自治区和山西省。结论:北京市宫颈癌患者在早婚、早育、多产等高危因素方面优于外省市患者,外省市宫颈癌筛查宣教和实施筛查的力度需进一步加大,扩大体检发现率和ⅠA期发现率。"两癌筛查"的作用尚未体现,还需要长期坚持、广泛开展。     

Innovative Approaches to Cervical Cancer Screening for Sex Trade Workers: An International Scoping Review

ObjectiveFemale sex trade workers are among those at highest risk for developing and dying of cervical cancer, and yet many—particularly the most marginalized—are less likely than other women to be screened.This review summarizes global findings on innovative approaches to cervical cancer screening for female sex trade workers, highlights current gaps in the delivery of cervical cancer screening for female sex trade workers globally, and suggests areas for future research and policy development.Data SourcesA scoping review of peer-reviewed publications and grey literature was conducted. Medline (OVID), PubMed, EMBASE, and SCOPUS were searched for relevant studies written in English. There were no limitations placed on dates. Grey literature was identified by hand searching and through discussion with health care providers and community outreach workers currently working with sex trade workers.Study SelectionTwenty-five articles were deemed suitable for review. Articles detailing innovative ways for female sex trade workers to access cervical cancer screening were included. Articles about screening for sexually transmitted infections were also included if the findings could be generalized to screening for cervical cancer. Articles limited to exploring risk factors, knowledge, awareness, education, prevalence, and incidence of cervical cancer among sex trade workers were excluded from the review.Data Extraction and SynthesisSuccessful screening initiatives identified in the studies reviewed had unconventional hours of operation, understood the difference between street-based and venue-based sex trade workers, and/or used peers for outreach.ConclusionTwo significant gaps in health care service delivery were highlighted in this review: the limited use of unorthodox hours and the nearly exclusive practice of providing sexually transmitted infection screening for female sex trade workers without cervical cancer screening. In addition, although street-based (as opposed to venue-based) sex trade workers are likely at higher risk for developing cervical cancer, they are much less likely than other eligible women to participate in screening programs, meaning traditional outreach methods are unlikely to be successful.     

The Role of Ultrasound in the Assessment of Uterine Cervical Cancer

Uterine cervical cancer is the second most frequent gynecological malignancy worldwide. The assessment of the extent of disease is essential for planning optimal treatment. Imaging techniques are increasingly used in the pre-treatment work-up of cervical cancer. Currently, MRI for local extent of disease evaluation and PET-scan for distant disease assessment are considered as first-line techniques. Notwithstanding, in the last few years, ultrasound has gained attention as an imaging technique for evaluating women with cervical cancer. In this paper, current knowledge about the use of ultrasound for assessing uterine cervical cancer will be reviewed and discussed.     

Screening history in women with cervical cancer in a Danish population-based screening program

Objective.

The aim of this study was to explore the screening histories of all cervical cancers in a Danish screening population. The intention was to decide suboptimal sides of the screening program and to evaluate the significance of routine screening in the development of cervical cancer.

Methods.

The study describes the results of a quality control audit, performed on all new cervical cancer cases diagnosed in the years 2008-2009 at two major Danish screening-centers. All relevant cytological and histological cervical samples were reviewed.

Results.

202.534 cytological samples were evaluated in the study period, while 112 women were diagnosed with cervical cancer. The histological diagnoses comprised: 62 (55.4%) squamous cell carcinomas, 20 (17.9%) microinvasive squamous cell carcinomas, 25 (22.3%) adenocarcinomas and 5 cancers of different histology. The mean age of study subjects was 46.6 years. 51 (45.5%) women had deficient screening histories, while 45 (40.2%) women had followed the screening recommendations and had normal cervical samples in review. 11 (9.8%) women were diagnosed with false negative cytology, 2 women had false negative histological tests, while pathological review was not feasible for 3 subjects.

Conclusions.

More than 45% of the cervical cancer cases in our study were due to deficient cervical screening, stressing the importance of increasing the screening-uptake and coverage. 40% interval cancers emphasize the relevance of further cervical testing of women with relevant symptoms, despite of prior normal cervical samples. Finally, 9.8% false negative cytological samples are consistent with previous reports, but still a part of the screening program that should be improved.     

Clinicopathological characteristics of cervical cancer between 2003 and 2005, after the introduction of a national cancer screening program in Slovenia

OBJECTIVE: An organized cervical cancer (CC) screening program was introduced in Slovenia in 2003. With the purpose of clinical audit we analyzed the clinicopathological characteristics of CC patients for the period between 2003 and 2005. STUDY DESIGN: The retrospectively collected data of 450 CC patients were presented at three Advisory Boards of Gynecologic Oncology in Slovenia. They were stratified for stage, tumor characteristics and treatment methods according to gynecologic examination attendance in the last 5 years preceding the diagnosis of CC (attenders vs. nonattenders). RESULTS: In the period of observation, 242 women (53.8%) visited their gynecologists in the 5-year period prior to diagnosis of CC. Squamous cell carcinoma was present in 378 women (84.0%), adenocarcinoma in 45 (10.0%), adenosquamous carcinoma in 24 (5.3%) and other types in 3 women (0.7%). Attenders were significantly more frequently diagnosed with squamous cell carcinoma than nonattenders (chi-square=5.13; P<0.05). Attenders were significantly more frequently diagnosed in stage IA than in stage IB (chi-square=22.35; P<0.01). Similarly, in attenders stage I was significantly more frequent than stage II (chi-square=18.81; P<0.01). Pathologic smears of women with CC in the last 5-year period were most frequently evaluated as Pap II in the years 2003 and 2004 (in 39.1 and 26.4% of women, respectively) and as Pap III (in 27.9% of women) in 2005. Surgery was performed in 282 women (62.7%), radiotherapy in 158 (35.1%), symptomatic therapy in 9 (2.0%) and chemotherapy alone in 1 (0.2%) woman. In attenders, surgery alone was the most frequent treatment method (chi-square=91.18; P<0.01). CONCLUSION: Only in attenders a significant redistribution of CC stages in favor of early stages is observed, and in these women more conservative and less extensive treatment methods could be applied.     

Complementary Procedures in Cervical Cancer Screening in Low Resource Settings

Objective

To evaluate the efficacy of pap smear, HPV DNA testing and colposcopy and to determine the approach for cervical cancer screening in low resource settings.

Methods

Eight hundred non pregnant married women above 30 years of age were studied and subjected to pap smear examination. Hysterectomised women were excluded from the study. Selected patients were followed by HPV DNA testing by Hybrid Capture II method, colposcopy and biopsy. Sensitivity, specificity, Positive predictive value (PPV), Negative predictive value (NPV), diagnostic accuracy and kappa value (k) were calculated for each screening test.

Result

Out of eight hundred women with mean age 36.5 ± 5.94 years undergoing pap smear, ASCUS was found in 66(8.25%), ASC-H in 2(0.25%), LSIL in 48(6%), HSIL in 8(1%), inflammatory in 540(67.5%). Out of 260 women who underwent HPV DNA testing, 120 (46.15%) had abnormal cytology and/or positive HPV DNA test (Group I, n = 120) and 140(53.8%) had dual negative results (Group II, n = 140) HPV DNA test was found positive in 64 women (53.3%) in Group I. Sensitivity and specificity of pap smear was 69.2 and 63.72% while for HPV DNA testing was 92.3 and 84% respectively. PPV and NPV of pap smear, HPV DNA testing and colposcopy was 18, 40, 76.4% and 94.7, 98.9, 100% respectively. Diagnostic accuracy of pap smear (k = 0.14), HPV DNA test (k = 0.70) and colposcopy (k = 0.81) was 64.29, 84.9, and 96.8% respectively. Combining pap smear &; HPV DNA testing (k = 0.25) increased the sensitivity and NPV to 100%.

Conclusion

Sensitivity and diagnostic accuracy of HPV DNA test is more than that of pap smear and the test is not influenced by inflammatory conditions of vagina. In low resource settings, women with ASCUS and LSIL on cervical cytology should be subjected to HPV DNA test and only if found positive should be referred for colposcopy thereby reducing colposcopy referrals. Women with HSIL should be directly subjected to colposcopy guided biopsy. Using this approach, most of the preinvasive cervical lesion will be detected but few cases will still be missed among inflammatory smears, if HPV DNA testing is not supplemented.     

妊娠期和产后妇女宫颈病变筛查研究新进展

近来有研究显示,妊娠期宫颈细胞学异常及人乳头瘤病毒(HPV)感染检出率较高,但分娩后又有一定的自然消退率和进展率。HPV感染易致宫颈细胞学异常,另有研究指出多个性伴侣、初次性生活早、多产次、社会经济地位低下、非白种人、吸烟均是宫颈细胞学异常的高危因素。妊娠期妇女宫颈存在特异性生理改变易导致诊断误差。目前专门针对妊娠期妇女宫颈筛查新方法的研究甚少,仍是使用与非妊娠妇女相同的筛查方法,如液基细胞学、传统巴氏涂片(Pap Smear)、HPV DNA检测。而各项指南对妊娠妇女宫颈病变筛查时机和间隔的选择仍有争论,有待进一步大规模研究。     

p16/Ki-67双染在宫颈癌及癌前病变初筛中的应用价值研究

目的:评价采用p16/Ki-67双染检测技术作为宫颈癌及癌前病变初筛方法的效果及应用价值。方法:对重庆市万州区982例年龄35~64岁有性生活的妇女进行宫颈癌筛查。每位妇女均接受了人乳头瘤病毒DNA(HPV DNA)检测、Thin Prep液基细胞学检查、p16/Ki-67双染检测,对结果异常者进行阴道镜检查,阴道镜下在可见病变处直接取活检,无可见病变时,行宫颈管搔刮术(ECC)。比较3种方法分别作为初筛手段识别宫颈癌前病变(高级别鳞状上皮内病变)及浸润癌的灵敏度、特异度、阳性预测值和阴性预测值等指标,以受试者工作特征(ROC)曲线下面积(AUC)综合分析3种方法作为宫颈癌初筛手段的应用价值。结果:最终966例妇女进入研究,共检出高级别鳞状上皮内病变及浸润癌患者42例。HPV DNA检测、液基细胞学检查和p16/Ki-67检测对宫颈癌及癌前病变患者的灵敏度分别为97.6%、88.1%、92.9%;特异度分别为84.1%、78.8%、82.8%;阳性预测值分别为21.8%、15.9%、19.7%;阴性预测值分别为99.9%、99.3%、99.6%。p16/Ki-67检测的AUC分别与HPV DNA检测、液基细胞学检查相比,差异均无统计学意义(P0.05)。结论:p16/Ki-67双染检测初筛宫颈癌及癌前病变的效果与HPV DNA检测及液基细胞学检查相似,因其具有简便、客观、高效、易于重复的特点,p16/Ki-67双染检测为宫颈癌及癌前病变的有效初筛提供了一种新选择。     

对ASCCP 2012年宫颈癌筛查和癌前病变管理指南的解读

针对子宫颈癌筛查过程中的细胞学及高危人乳头瘤病毒(HPV)阳性等的管理措施,美国阴道镜检查和宫颈病理学会(ASCCP)所制定的指南无疑是最具有国际性及权威性的。ASCCP于2013年公布的《2012年宫颈癌筛查和癌前病变全球共识指南》是由众多子宫颈癌防治专家组成的委员会通过搜集资料、研究文献、网上会议讨论等方式制定的,是对2006年版指南的更新和补充。其中,美国北加州凯瑟永久医疗集团(KPNC)140万例妇女2003年1月—2010年12月的筛查和随访资料为指南的制定提供了重要的循证医学证据。解读该指南,旨在了解指南修订的思路与循证医学证据,为合理处理宫颈癌异常筛查结果提供帮助。     

肉眼观察法在宫颈癌及癌前病变筛查中的应用

目的：探讨醋酸肉眼观察（VIA）和碘染色肉眼观察（VILI）在宫颈癌及癌前病变筛查中的可行性。方法：以天津市大港区2003例妇女为研究对象,进行癌症综合知识、危险因素的问卷调查．用VIA和VILI行宫颈癌及其癌前病变筛查。VIA或VILI阳性者行电子阴道镜检查,阴道镜检查异常者行阴道镜下宫颈活检,病理学检查明确诊断。结果：单纯VIA阳性者257例。VIA或VILI阳性者共计265例．其中197例阴道镜检查异常,在阴道镜指导下行宫颈活检,以病理学检查结果作为诊断的金标准,宫颈上皮内瘤变（CIN）的检出率为7．04％,其中CINI116例,CINⅡ14例,CINIII11例。结论：在资源有限、经济欠发达的地区,由经过培训的医生实施VIA或VIU做宫颈癌初筛的方案可行。     

Cervical Cancer Screening in Immunocompromised Women

In the context of changing recommendations for cervical cancer screening, differing recommendations in each province, and a lack of guidance for cervical screening of immunocompromised women, this article provides specific recommendations for cervical cancer screening of immunocompromised women in Canada.     

肉眼观察法在宫颈癌及癌前病变筛查中的应用

目的：探讨醋酸肉眼观察（VIA）和碘染色肉眼观察（VILI）在宫颈癌及癌前病变筛查中的可行性。方法：以天津市大港区2 003例妇女为研究对象,进行癌症综合知识、危险因素的问卷调查,用VIA和 VILI行宫颈癌及其癌前病变筛查。VIA或VILI阳性者行电子阴道镜检查,阴道镜检查异常者行阴道镜下宫颈活检,病理学检查明确诊断。结果：单纯VIA阳性者257例,VIA或VILI阳性者共计265例,其中197例阴道镜检查异常,在阴道镜指导下行宫颈活检,以病理学检查结果作为诊断的金标准,宫颈上皮内瘤变（CIN）的检出率为7.04%,其中CINⅠ116例,CINⅡ14例,CINⅢ11例。结论：在资源有限、经济欠发达的地区,由经过培训的医生实施VIA或VILI做宫颈癌初筛的方案可行。     

阴道镜初学者拟诊与病理诊断宫颈病变偏离原因探讨

目的:评估阴道镜初学者阴道镜拟诊与病理诊断宫颈病变吻合情况,分析阴道镜拟诊不足和拟诊过度的原因。方法:回顾性分析2015年3~10月在北京大学第一医院由单一阴道镜初学者独立操作诊断的最初200例宫颈病变患者。对阴道镜拟诊与病理诊断吻合率、偏离率进行总结,并分析拟诊不足和拟诊过度的原因。结果:174例宫颈活检病理证实的患者中,拟诊吻合率59.2%,拟诊不足率18.4%,拟诊过度率22.4%。阴道镜诊断HSIL拟诊不足病例TCT正常率为78.6%,高于HSIL拟诊吻合病例18.1%,差异有统计学意义(P0.05)。HSIL拟诊不足病例14例患者的阴道镜图像中,在病理证实为HSIL的部位均有致密浓厚醋白上皮存在。HSIL拟诊不足病例绝经后妇女21.4%,高于HSIL拟诊吻合病例0%,差异有统计学意义(P0.05)。HSIL拟诊吻合病例取活检数目高于拟诊不足病例(中位数3.5 vs 2),差异有统计学意义(P0.05)。拟诊过度病例活检数目高于拟诊吻合病例(中位数3 vs 2),差异有统计学意义(P0.05)。结论:阴道镜拟诊宫颈病变时过度依赖TCT检查结果、对醋白上皮认识不足和对绝经后妇女容易发生拟诊不足,增加活检数目对于HSIL拟诊吻合率有帮助,但拟诊过度往往导致了活检数目的增加。     

Views regarding the use of contraception amongst young people in the UK: A systematic review and thematic synthesis

Objectives?The high rate of teenage pregnancy in the United Kingdom continues to be a concern. Factors such as living in a deprived area, poor educational attainment, and living in state-provided care homes have been associated with a greater risk of young motherhood. This study aimed to examine the literature describing perceptions of young people, with a view to gaining a greater understanding of individual contraceptive use and risk factors for young motherhood.

Methods?A systematic review of studies reporting qualitative data was undertaken. Data were synthesised to develop key themes.

Results?Thirty-four papers using qualitative or mixed methods were included in the review. Five key themes are reported; they relate to: use or non-use of contraceptives; attitude to pregnancy; views regarding different forms of contraception; influences on views; gender differences.

Conclusions?The review highlights that individual conceptions of risk, differing perceptions of benefits and concerns regarding the forms of contraception, and varying attitudes towards pregnancy, continue to present obstacles to changing behaviour, particularly in high risk groups. There seems to be a need for interventions to further address negative perceptions of contraceptives, and place a greater emphasis on exploring value judgements regarding contraception and young motherhood.