Matrix metalloproteinases 2 and 9 work in concert to produce aortic aneurysms

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) 9 and 2 are increased in human abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA) tissue, but their precise role and potential interaction remain unclear. Experimental induction of aortic aneurysms in mice genetically deficient in these peptidases could provide new insight into AAA pathogenesis. Mice deficient in the expression of MMP-9 (MMP-9KO) or MMP-2 (MMP-2KO) and their corresponding wild-type background mice (WT) underwent AAA induction by abluminal application of calcium chloride (CaCl(2)). No aneurysm formation was observed at 10 weeks after treatment in either the MMP-9KO or the MMP-2KO mice, whereas the corresponding WT mice showed an average 74% and 52% increase in aortic diameter, respectively. Reinfusion of competent macrophages from the corresponding WT strains into knockout mice resulted in reconstitution of AAA in MMP-9KO but not MMP-2KO mice. These findings suggest that macrophage-derived MMP-9 and mesenchymal cell MMP-2 are both required and work in concert to produce AAA.     

mPGES-1-expressing bone marrow-derived cells enhance tumor growth and angiogenesis in mice

Microsomal prostaglandin (PG) E synthase 1 (mPGES-1) is a major PGE synthase and has recently been reported to be expressed at high levels in several cancer types. We previously reported that the PGE receptor EP3 is expressed in bone marrow (BM) derived cells, enriched in stromal tissue, and enhances the potential for tumor angiogenesis. In the present study, we examined the role of mPGES-1-expressing BM cells on tumor angiogenesis using BM chimeric mice. After lethal radiation, wild-type (WT) BMs were excised and replaced with BM cells isolated from mPGES-1 knockout mice (mPGES-1^−/−). Lewis lung carcinoma cell were implanted subcutaneously and the levels of neoangiogenesis were measured tumor growth in mPGES-1^−/− BM chimeric mice was significantly reduced compared to that observed in WT BM chimeric mice. Tumor-associated angiogenesis as measured by histological analysis was localized to tumor stroma, and was significantly lower in mPGES-1^−/− BM chimeric mice compared to that in WT BM chimeric mice. Tumor sections probed by immunohistochemistry revealed that vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) that was present in the stromal tissue was markedly reduced in mPGES-1^−/− BM chimeric mice compared to WT BM chimeras. These results suggest that the recruitment of mPGES-1-expressing BM cells to tumor-associated stromal tissue is crucial for tumor growth and angiogenesis, and correlates with gene expression of host VEGF in stroma. Taken together, these data suggest that regulation of mPGES-1-expressing BM cell recruitment to the site of primary tumors may be a novel strategy for the treatment of solid tumors.     

Targeted deletion of matrix metalloproteinase-9 attenuates left ventricular enlargement and collagen accumulation after experimental myocardial infarction

Matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) is prominently overexpressed after myocardial infarction (MI). We tested the hypothesis that mice with targeted deletion of MMP9 have less left ventricular (LV) dilation after experimental MI than do sibling wild-type (WT) mice. Animals that survived ligation of the left coronary artery underwent echocardiographic studies after MI; all analyses were performed without knowledge of mouse genotype. By day 8, MMP9 knockout (KO) mice had significantly smaller increases in end-diastolic and end-systolic ventricular dimensions at both midpapillary and apical levels, compared with infarcted WT mice; these differences persisted at 15 days after MI. MMP-9 KO mice had less collagen accumulation in the infarcted area than did WT mice, and they showed enhanced expression of MMP-2, MMP-13, and TIMP-1 and a reduced number of macrophages. We conclude that targeted deletion of the MMP9 gene attenuates LV dilation after experimental MI in mice. The decrease in collagen accumulation and the enhanced expression of other MMPs suggest that MMP-9 plays a prominent role in extracellular matrix remodeling after MI.     

Prostanoid induces premetastatic niche in regional lymph nodes

The lymphatic system is an important route for cancer dissemination, and lymph node metastasis (LNM) serves as a critical prognostic determinant in cancer patients. We investigated the contribution of COX-2–derived prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂) in the formation of a premetastatic niche and LNM. A murine model of Lewis lung carcinoma (LLC) cell metastasis revealed that COX-2 is expressed in DCs from the early stage in the lymph node subcapsular regions, and COX-2 inhibition markedly suppressed mediastinal LNM. Stromal cell–derived factor-1 (SDF-1) was elevated in DCs before LLC cell infiltration to the lymph nodes, and a COX-2 inhibitor, an SDF-1 antagonist, and a CXCR4 neutralizing antibody all reduced LNM. Moreover, LNM was reduced in mice lacking the PGE₂ receptor EP3, and stimulation of cultured DCs with an EP3 agonist increased SDF-1 production. Compared with WT CD11c⁺ DCs, injection of EP3-deficient CD11c⁺ DCs dramatically reduced accumulation of SDF-1⁺CD11c⁺ DCs in regional LNs and LNM in LLC-injected mice. Accumulation of Tregs and lymph node lymphangiogenesis, which may influence the fate of metastasized tumor cells, was also COX-2/EP3–dependent. These results indicate that DCs induce a premetastatic niche during LNM via COX-2/EP3–dependent induction of SDF-1 and suggest that inhibition of this signaling axis may be an effective strategy to suppress premetastatic niche formation and LNM.     

Matrix metalloproteinase inhibitor MMI-166 inhibits lymphogenous metastasis in an orthotopically implanted model of lung cancer

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMP) are considered to be critically involved in tumor invasion and the metastasis of various cancers. MMI-166 is a selective inhibitor of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP-2, MMP-9, and MMP-14). The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of MMI-166 on both the growth of the implanted tumor and the lymph node metastasis of the mediastinum and prolonging the life span, using an orthotopic implantation model of the Ma44-3 cancer cell line. We examined the anti-invasive effect of MMI-166 in lung cancer cell lines using an in vitro invasion assay. Next, we examined the anticancer effect of MMI-166 in vivo. MMI-166 (200 mg/kg body weight) or a vehicle was administered orally to the orthotopically implanted lung cancer model. MMI-166 dose-dependently inhibited the invasion of cancer cell lines with expressions of MMP-2 and/or MMP-9 in vitro. In vivo, MMI-166 significantly inhibited mediastinal lymph node metastasis in this orthotopic model (weight of the mediastinum: control, 0.089 +/- 0.009 versus MMI-166, 0.069 +/- 0.008 mg; P = 0.005; metastatic area: control, 93,495 +/- 55,747 versus MMI-166, 22,747 +/- 17,478 pixels; P = 0.045). MMI-166 prolonged the life span by 6 days in median survival time in the orthotopically implanted model (P = 0.039). These results showed that MMI-166 could possibly inhibit lymph node metastasis and prolong the life span in lung cancer patients.     

基质金属蛋白酶及CD15在肺癌浸润、转移中的作用

目的 探讨基质金属蛋白酶（MMP-2,MMP-9）及其抑制剂（TIMP-1,TIMP-2）和细胞粘附分子CD15在肺癌浸润和转移中的作用,是否能为临床肺癌的诊断和治疗提供一种新的,有效的手段。方法 通过免疫组化方法检测47例肺癌标本中MMP-2 MMP-9,TIMP-1,TIMP-2和CD15的表达情况。结果 腺癌中MMP-2,TIMP-1阻性表达率明显高于鳞癌（P〈0.01）,鳞癌中MMP-9的阳性表达率高于腺癌（P〈0.01）;低分化者MMP-9的阳性表达率高于高,中分化者（P〈0.05）;有淋巴结转移者MMP-2,MMP-9和CD15的阳性表达率高于无淋巴结转移者（P〈0.01）;无淋巴结转移者中TIMP-1的阳性表达率高于有淋巴结转移者。结论 肺癌组织中MMP-2,MMP-9,TIMP-1和CD15的阳性表达可能是肺癌恶性程度和预后判断的指标。     

多种基质金属蛋白酶在高氧所致急性肺损伤中的表达

目的 探讨基质金属蛋白酶（MMPs）和细胞外基质金属蛋白酶诱导因子（EMMPRIN）在高氧所致急性肺损伤（ALl）发病中的作用。方法 72只小鼠按随机数字表法分为正常对照组和高氧24、48、72h组，每组18只。高氧组小鼠置于密闭的氧气室，暴露于体积分数〉98％的高氧；正常对照组小鼠呼吸室内空气作为对照组。分别于24、48和72h活杀高氧组小鼠，取肺评价肺损伤程度；逆转录-聚合酶链反应（RT—PCR）及免疫组化法测定肺组织MMP-2、MMP-9及EMMPRIN的mRNA和蛋白表达及组织分布。结果 高氧能引起ALI。RT—PCR结果显示，高氧组动物肺组织MMP-2、MMP-9及EMMPRIN的mRNA表达均增高；免疫组化研究显示，MMP-2和MMP-9蛋白主要表达于气道上皮细胞、血管平滑肌细胞和炎性细胞的胞浆中，EMMPRIN蛋白则主要表达于上述细胞胞浆和细胞膜上；它们在气道上皮细胞中的表达在高氧环境下明显升高。结论 高氧能引起ALI，伴MMP-2、MMP-9和EMMPRIN的表达增高，MMPs通过降解细胞外基质从而在高氧所致ALI过程中发挥重要作用。     

R(+)-methanandamide and other cannabinoids induce the expression of cyclooxygenase-2 and matrix metalloproteinases in human nonpigmented ciliary epithelial cells

Prostaglandins (PGs) and matrix metalloproteinases (MMP) have been implicated in lowering intraocular pressure (IOP) by facilitating aqueous humor outflow. A possible role of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) in this process was emphasized by findings showing an impaired COX-2 expression in the nonpigmented ciliary epithelium (NPE) of patients with primary open-angle glaucoma. Using human NPE cells, the present study therefore investigated the effect of the IOP-lowering cannabinoid R(+)-methanandamide [R(+)-MA] on the expression of COX-2 and different MMPs and tissue inhibitors of MMPs (TIMPs). R(+)-MA led to a concentration- and time-dependent increase of COX-2 mRNA expression. R(+)-MA-induced COX-2 expression was accompanied by time-dependent phosphorylations of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and p42/44 MAPK and was abrogated by inhibitors of both pathways. Moreover, R(+)-MA increased the mRNA and protein expression of MMP-1, MMP-3, MMP-9, and TIMP-1 but not that of MMP-2 and TIMP-2. Inhibition of COX-2 activity with NS-398 [N-[2-(cyclohexyloxy)-4-nitrophenyl]-methanesulfonamide] was associated with a virtually complete suppression of R(+)-MA-induced MMP-9 and TIMP-1 expression. Consistent with these data, MMP-9 and TIMP-1 expression was also induced by PGE2, a major COX-2 product. Two other COX-2-inducing cannabinoids, anandamide and Delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol, caused the same pattern of MMP and TIMP expression as R(+)-MA both in the absence and presence of NS-398. Altogether, cannabinoids induce the production of several outflow-facilitating mediators in the human NPE. Our results further imply an involvement of COX-2-dependent PGs in MMP-9 and TIMP-1 expression. In conclusion, stimulation of intraocular COX-2 and MMP expression may represent a potential mechanism contributing to the IOP-lowering action of different cannabinoids.     

Diallyl trisulfide increases the effectiveness of TRAIL and inhibits prostate cancer growth in an orthotopic model: molecular mechanisms

Recent studies have shown that naturally occurring compounds can enhance the efficacy of chemotherapeutic drugs. The objectives of this study were to investigate the molecular mechanisms by which diallyl trisulfide (DATS) enhanced the therapeutic potential of tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) in prostate cancer cells in vitro and on orthotopically transplanted PC-3 prostate carcinoma in nude mice. DATS inhibited cell viability and colony formation and induced apoptosis in PC-3 and LNCaP cells. DATS enhanced the apoptosis-inducing potential of TRAIL in PC-3 cells and sensitized TRAIL-resistant LNCaP cells. Dominant-negative FADD inhibited the synergistic interaction between DATS and TRAIL on apoptosis. DATS induced the expression of DR4, DR5, Bax, Bak, Bim, Noxa, and PUMA and inhibited expression of Mcl-1, Bcl-2, Bcl-X(L), survivin, XIAP, cIAP1, and cIAP2. Oral administration of DATS significantly inhibited growth of orthotopically implanted prostate carcinoma in BALB/c nude mice compared with the control group, without causing weight loss. Cotreatment of mice with DATS and TRAIL was more effective in inhibiting prostate tumor growth and inducing DR4 and DR5 expression, caspase-8 activity, and apoptosis than either agent alone. DATS inhibited angiogenesis (as measured by CD31-positive and factor VIII-positive blood vessels and hypoxia-inducible factor-1alpha, vascular endothelial growth factor, and interleukin-6 expression) and metastasis [matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-2, MMP-7, MMP-9, and MT-1 MMP expression], which were correlated with inhibition in AKT and nuclear factor-kappaB activation. The combination of DATS and TRAIL was more effective in inhibiting markers of angiogenesis and metastasis than either agent alone. These data suggest that DATS can be combined with TRAIL for the prevention and/or treatment of prostate cancer.     

MMP-2、MMP-9在肺癌中的表达及其与肺癌转移和预后关系的研究

目的:探讨非小细胞肺癌(NSCLC)组织中基质金属蛋白酶-2(MMP-2)及基质金属蛋白酶-9(MMP-9)的表达水平与肺癌转移和预后的关系。方法:应用免疫组化(LSAB法)检测了108例非小细胞肺癌和19例肺良性病变中MMP-2、MMP-9的表达水平。结果:(1)肺癌组织中MMP-2、MMP-9的表达水平均显著高于癌旁肺组织和肺良性病变肺组织(P<0.01)。(2)伴有淋巴结或/和远外转移的肺癌中MMP-2、MMP-9的表达水平均显著高于不伴有淋巴结或/和远外转移的肺癌(P<0.01或P<0.05)。(3)MMP-2、MMP-9在肺鳞癌中的表达水平显著高于在腺癌和腺鳞癌中的表达水平(P<0.01)。(4)肺癌组织中MMP-2、MMP-9的表达水平呈显著正相关(P<0.05)。(5)多因素COX比例风险模型分析显示:MMP-2、MMP-9的表达水平对于预测肺癌预后具有一定意义。结论:(1)肺癌中MMP-2、MMP-9的表达水平明显升高,且与肺癌的进展和转移有密切关系。(2)肺癌组织中MMP-2、MMP-9的表达水平呈显著正相关(P<0.05)。(3)检测肺癌中MMP-2、MMP-9的表达水平有助于预测肺癌的预后,指导肺癌的多学科综合治疗。     

前列腺癌组织mPGES-1表达及其与COX-2的相关性

目的 探讨膜结合型前列腺素E合成酶1（mPGES-1）在前列腺癌（PCa）及前列腺增生（BPH）组织中的表达,并进一步分析其与环氧合酶2（COX-2）的相关性。方法 采用免疫组化SP法检测30例PCa和20例BPH组织中mPGES-1和COX-2的表达,用图像分析软件分析阳性表达的灰度和面积,并采用直线相关方法 分析mPGES-1和COX-2的相关性。结果 BPH组织中mPGES-1和COX-2表达呈阴性（14/20）或弱阳性（6/20）;PCa组织中mPGES-1和COX-2均呈现阳性表达（30/30）。在PCa中,mPGES-1和COX-2的阳性面积表达水平与Gleason评分呈正相关（r=0.633、0.607,P〈0.01）;mPGES-1与COX-2也呈正相关（r=0.959,P〈0.01）。结论 mPGES-1和COX-2在PCa中均为高表达,且与PCa的Gleason评分呈正相关;mPGES-1和COX-2的表达呈正相关,提示两者在PCa发生发展中共同发挥重要作用。     

Metastasis is strongly reduced by the matrix metalloproteinase inhibitor Galardin in the MMTV-PymT transgenic breast cancer model

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMP) have several roles that influence cancer progression and dissemination. However, low molecular weight metalloproteinase inhibitors (MPI) have not yet been tested in transgenic/spontaneous metastasis models. We have tested Galardin/GM6001, a potent MPI that reacts with most MMPs, in the MMTV-PymT transgenic breast cancer model. We followed a cohort of 81 MMTV-PymT transgenic mice that received Galardin, placebo, or no treatment. Galardin treatment was started at age 6 weeks with 100 mg/kg/d, and all mice were killed at age 13.5 weeks. Galardin treatment significantly reduced primary tumor growth. Final tumor burden in Galardin-treated mice was 1.69 cm3 compared with 3.29 cm3 in placebo-treated mice (t test, P = 0.0014). We quantified the total lung metastasis volume in the same cohort of mice. The median metastasis volume was 0.003 mm(3) in Galardin-treated mice compared with 0.56 mm(3) in placebo-treated mice (t test, P < 0.0001). Thus, metastasis burden was reduced more than 100-fold, whereas primary tumor size was reduced only 2-fold. We also found that primary tumors from Galardin-treated mice exhibited a lower histopathologic tumor grade, increased collagen deposition, and increased MMP-2 activity. MMPs are known to have tumor-promoting and tumor-inhibitory effects, and several clinical trials of broad-spectrum MPIs have failed to show promising effects. The very potent antimetastatic effect of Galardin in the MMTV-PymT model does, however, show that it may be possible to find broad-spectrum MPIs with favorable inhibition profiles, or perhaps combinations of monospecific MPIs, for future clinical application.     

SATB1 promotes prostate cancer metastasis by the regulation of epithelial–mesenchymal transition

Special AT-rich sequence binding protein 1 (SATB1) plays important role in the regulation of chromatin structure and gene expression. Recent studies have indicated oncogenic role of SATB1. However, the function of SATB1 in prostate cancer progression and metastasis remains unclear. In this study SATB1 expression vector or siRNA was employed to modulate the expression level of SATB1 in prostate cancer cells and xenograft tumor in nude mouse model. Immunohistochemical analysis was performed on clinical prostate cancer samples. Silencing SATB1 inhibited the growth of DU-145 cells subcutaneous tumor in nude mice, while SATB1 overexpression promoted the growth of LNCaP cells subcutaneous tumor in nude mice. Immunohistochemical and Western blot analysis of the xenografts showed that silencing SATB1 led to decreased expression of vimentin and MMP2 and increased expression of E-cadherin, while SATB1 overexpression led to increased expression of vimentin and MMP2 and decreased expression of E-cadherin. Furthermore, SATB1, vimentin and MMP2 expression was increased significantly while E-cadherin expression was reduced significantly in clinical samples of prostate carcinoma with metastasis compared to prostate carcinoma without metastasis and benign prostate hyperplasia. Taken together, these findings suggest that the modulation of epithelial–mesenchymal transition by SATB1 may contribute to prostate cancer metastasis.     

AdTIMP-2 inhibits tumor growth, angiogenesis, and metastasis, and prolongs survival in mice

TIMP-2 is a natural matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) inhibitor that prevents the degradation of extracellular matrix proteins. It abolishes the hydrolytic activity of all activated members of the metalloproteinase family and in particular that of MT1-MMP, MMP-2, and MMP-9, which are selective for type IV collagenolysis. Since MMPs have been implicated in both cancer progression and angiogenesis, we generated a recombinant adenovirus to deliver human TIMP-2 (AdTIMP-2) and evaluated its anticancer efficiency in three murine models. Our results demonstrated that overexpression in vitro of TIMP-2 inhibited the invasion of both tumor and endothelial cells without affecting cell proliferation. Its in vivo efficiency has been evaluated in murine lung cancer LLC, and colon cancer C51 in syngeneic mice as well as in human breast cancer MDA-MB231 in athymic mice. Preinfection of tumor cells by AdTIMP-2 resulted in an inhibition of tumor establishment in more than 50% of mice in LLC and C51 models and in 100% mice in the MDA-MB231 model. A single local injection of AdTIMP-2 into preestablished tumors of these three types significantly reduced tumor growth rates by 60--80% and tumor-associated angiogenesis index by 25--75%. Lung metastasis of LLC tumor was inhibited by >90%. In addition, AdTIMP-2-treated mice showed a significantly prolonged survival in all the cancer models tested. These data demonstrate the potential of adenovirus-mediated TIMP-2 therapy in cancer treatment.     

γ射线照射对前列腺癌细胞金属基质蛋白酶和促红细胞生成素受体表达的影响

目的:前列腺癌PC-3细胞接受不同剂量γ射线照射后,观察其金属基质蛋白酶-2(M M P2)、金属基质蛋白酶-9(M M P9)及促红细胞生成素受体蛋白(E PO-R)表达的变化,阐明γ射线对前列腺癌PC-3细胞生物学行为的影响。方法:分别用1G y、3G y、5G y剂量的60C oγ射线,照射体外培养的PC-3细胞系。用流式细胞术检测M M P2、M M P9及E PO-R的含量;并测定细胞生长曲线及克隆形成率。结果:(1)1G y剂量即可明显抑制细胞的生长,并且细胞克隆形成率随着剂量的增加而降低;(2)E PO-R表达在1G y和3G y组高于对照组,5G y组低于对照组;(3)M M P2总体上出现降低趋势;M M P9表达在1～5G y组均高于对照组。结论:虽然60C oγ射线照射可明显抑制前列腺癌PC-3细胞的生长,但是M M P9及E PO-R表达却增高,提示亚致死剂量的γ射线照射可使存活细胞的浸润性增高。     

COX-2、MMP-9在甲状腺癌中的表达及临床意义

目的探讨COX-2、MMP-9在甲状腺癌中的表达及其临床意义。方法免疫组化法检测COX-2、MMP-9在甲状腺癌、甲状腺瘤、结节性甲状腺肿及及正常甲状腺组织的表达情况,并对临床病理特征及淋巴结转移进行对比分析。结果 COX-2、MMP-9在甲状腺癌中的表达明显高于甲状腺良性病变,与年龄、肿瘤大小、肿瘤包膜性、临床分期有密切关系（P〈0.05）,COX-2与淋巴结转移有显著相关（P〈0.05）。COX-2、MMP-9均与性别无明显关系（P〉0.05）。结论 COX-2和MMP-9可作为甲状腺癌重要的恶性生物学指标,检测COX-2和MMP-9有助于术前诊断甲状腺癌及判定淋巴结转移、肿瘤浸润情况,使患者得到及时有效治疗。