Algorithm in choosing recipient vessels for perforator free flap in breast reconstruction: the role of the internal mammary perforators.

INTRODUCTION: Although the internal mammary (IM) vessels are our first choice as recipient vessels for free flap breast reconstruction, attempts to reduce surgical morbidity led us to adopt an algorithm when choosing recipient vessels. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The IM vessels give direct perforators to the breast. They can be found either superficial or deep to the pectoralis major muscle. If they are of a reasonable calibre they can be considered as recipient vessels. When the perforators are not suitable, the IM vessels are used for the microanastomosis. This protocol was adopted for our patients between June 1999 and December 2002. RESULTS: Breast reconstruction with free flaps was performed on 298 patients with perforator flaps. IM and thoracodorsal (TD) vessels are used in 88% and 3% of cases, respectively. IM perforators were successfully used in 30 cases (9%). The IM perforators used were located at the level of the second and third intercostal space in nine (30%) and 21 (70%) cases, respectively. The average diameters of those perforators were 1 mm (0.5-1.3 mm) for the artery and 1.7 mm (1-3 mm) for the vein. CONCLUSIONS: The IM perforators can be used as recipient vessels for free flaps. This spares the IM vessels for eventual cardiac bypass surgery, avoiding recipient site morbidity and decreasing the postoperative discomfort.     

Use of internal mammary vessel perforator as a recipient vessel for free TRAM breast reconstruction

Breast reconstruction is a cosmetically critical procedure for women and it must be undertaken to balance the shape, size, and position of the breast with the other breast. Since the first introduction of the free abdominoplasty flap in 1979, the transverse rectus abdominis musculocutaneous (TRAM) flap technique has been a widely accepted method of breast reconstruction after mastectomy. In breast reconstruction with a free flap, the selection of suitable recipient vessels is the critical decision to be made by the surgeon. The most common recipient vessel for free flap breast reconstruction is the axillary system. However, when used as a recipient, the axillary system may limit flap movement and flexibility in breast shaping. The use of the internal mammary vessels as a recipient site attains ideal breast symmetry. However, the technique requires partial rib resection and eliminates the opportunity for a potential coronary artery bypass graft, which requires the internal mammary artery. Based on these considerations, the selection of suitable recipient vessels constitutes an important requirement for successful free tissue transfer. The authors have performed breast reconstruction with the TRAM flap anastomosed to the internal mammary perforator vessel and conclude that these perforators could be useful as recipient vessels, especially in the case of immediate breast reconstruction with the free TRAM flap.     

Internal mammary artery and vein: recipient vessels for free tissue transfer to the head and neck in the vessel-depleted neck

BACKGROUND: Microvascular free tissue transfer is a standard reconstructive option for postablative defects of the head and neck. However, the success of this surgery requires suitable recipient vessels in the cervical region. This form of reconstruction can be particularly challenging in the vessel-depleted neck. While the internal mammary artery and vein (IMA/V) have been used extensively in breast reconstruction, there are few reports describing their use in head and neck reconstruction. We report the first case series of the use of the internal mammary vessels for head and neck microvascular reconstruction. METHODS: We reviewed 5 cases of free tissue transfers to the head and neck in which extensive prior treatment precluded the use of more traditional recipient vessels in the neck or upper chest. RESULTS: A variety of free flaps were transferred for different reconstructive problems which included: chin/lower lip (n = 2), closure of widely patent tracheoesophageal puncture sites (n = 2), and pharyngoesophageal reconstruction following staged repair of a severe stenosis (n = 1). The radial forearm free flap was transferred in 4 patients and the rectus abdominus free flap in 1 patient. The IMA/V on the right side was prepared in all cases. All free flaps were successfully revascularized without the need for vein grafts and without the need for any microvascular revision procedures. CONCLUSION: The internal mammary artery and vein provide reliable, easily accessible recipient vessels for microvascular reconstruction in the vessel-depleted neck. The selection of free flap donor sites with long donor vessels facilitates the microvascular repair.     

The internal mammary artery and vein as recipient vessels for microvascular breast reconstruction

Current recipient vessels for microvascular breast reconstruction include the internal mammary and the thoracodorsal systems. This review will focus on the advantages of the internal mammary artery and vein and reasons for their preference.     

Going up DIEAP creek��Coventry and Warwickshire Plastic Surgery Department��s experience with lifeboats and paddles

The deep inferior epigastric artery perforator (DIEAP) flap is arguably the gold standard for autologous breast reconstruction. Despite its manifold advantages, potential flap failure, often secondary to venous congestion, is a devastating possible complication. An appropriate salvage procedure may avoid DIEAP flap loss. To identify, describe and analyse DIEAP flap salvage procedures carried out by the senior author (and Coventry and Warwickshire Hospital Plastic Surgery Clinical lead) who has a special interest in breast reconstruction, over an 8-year period. A retrospective analysis of notes and logbooks was carried out to identify DIEAP flap breast reconstructions that required salvage procedures involving anastomoses in addition to or other than the routine deep inferior epigastric artery (DIEA) and vein (DIEV) to internal mammary artery and vein (IMV). One hundred twenty-seven DIEAP reconstructed cases were identified of which seven required lifeboat procedures: (1) piggy back chimeric DIEAP/TRAM flap, (2) double barrelling and trouser legging IMV and DIEVs, (3) contralateral perforator anastomosis to stump of main ipsilateral DIEA, (4) venous graft and anastomosis to cephalic vein, (5) venous anastomosis to thoracodorsal vein and (6) multiple rib resection for friable radiotherapy damaged vessels. The DIEAP flap is an increasingly popular method of providing autologous breast reconstruction with good volume and reliable perforators. However, surgeons may find that the recipient vessels of choice or the perforators alone are not adequate to maintain a healthy, viable flap. We hope that knowledge of this department’s salvage options may add to methods described in the literature and therefore the armamentarium of others when faced with similar problems.     

小腿后部各区穿支间的关系与皮瓣设计

目的 研究小腿后部各区穿支间的关系,为穿支皮瓣的临床应用提供解剖学依据.方法 选择6具动脉灌注明胶-氧化铅混悬液的新鲜成人整尸标本,将小腿后部分为上、中、下三等份,层次解剖观测各区穿支的分布状况,拍摄X线片测量穿支的定位、直径、走行、分支及其相互之间的吻合状况.结果 小腿后部共有外径为0.5 mm的穿支13支,平均外径0.8 mm,平均供血面积38 cm2.上区来自腘动脉的穿支起于胭窝中部,其浅出深筋膜的位置,通常位于股骨内、外上髁之连线与小腿后正中线交点4 cm范围内,其单穿支供血面积高达55 cm2.此穿支向下与来自胫后动脉、腓动脉之穿支形成不减少口径的真性吻合:下区穿支较细,但沿跟腱两侧呈链状分布.结论 小腿后部穿支皮瓣可以移植到下肢或身体其它部位,中区可切取穿支皮瓣游离移植,上区与下区可分别切取近端蒂与远端蒂穿支皮瓣.     

The internal mammary artery and vein as recipient vessels for microvascular breast reconstruction: are we burning a future bridge?

Clinical applications for the internal mammary artery include use as an arterial conduit for coronary revascularization and as a recipient artery for microvascular reconstruction of the breast. This study was completed in an attempt to resolve the controversy over which indication should have priority. Five hundred twenty women with breast cancer who underwent breast reconstruction were reviewed. Of these, 240 were 50 years of age or more and were evaluated for cardiac disease. Three components were studied that included analysis of factors related to cardiac function (prior cardiac surgery, specific cardiac disorders, and cardiac medications), analysis of risk factors related to cardiac disease (hypertension, diabetes mellitus, and tobacco use), and analysis of factors related to the reconstruction (selection of recipient vessels, type of reconstruction). The women were stratified based on age-50 to 59 years, 60 to 69 years, and older than 70 years-to analyze trends based on advancing age. Results demonstrated that the incidence of coronary artery disease was 2 in 240 women (0.8%) and that the incidence of factors related to cardiac function and the incidence of risk factors related to cardiac disease appear to increase with advancing age. The internal mammary vessels were used in 35 of 114 free tissue transfers with no adverse sequelae. No woman in whom the internal mammary artery was used has developed coronary artery disease. The 2 women with coronary artery disease were reconstructed with implants. Based on the results of this study, the author thinks that use of the internal mammary artery as a recipient vessel for microvascular reconstruction of the breast is justified. Options for future coronary revascularization would include the opposite internal mammary artery when available, a saphenous vein graft, or angioplasty.     

Sural perforator flap: Assessment of the posterior calf region as donor site for a free fasciocutaneous flap

Three kinds of free fasciocutaneous flap from the posterior calf region have been described in the literature: the medial sural perforator flap, the lateral sural perforator flap, and the traditional posterior calf fasciocutaneous flap that is supplied by superficial cutaneous vessels. Moreover, it has been reported that superficial cutaneous vessels are of a suitable size for microanastomosis when deep musclocutaneous perforators are absent or relatively tiny. To establish a safe technique for free fasciocutaneous flap elevation from the posterior calf region, we examined the number and location of the musculocutaneous perforators and the size of superficial cutaneous vessels at their origin from the popliteal artery in six formalinized cadavers. We found that all legs had at least one perforator either from the medial sural artery or the lateral sural artery. By contrast, we failed to find superficial cutaneous vessels of suitable size for microanastomosis in three legs, and there was no significant inverse relationship between the diameter of the superficial cutaneous artery and the number of musculocutaneous perforators. Our results suggest that the medial sural perforator flap and the lateral sural perforator flap might be the surgeon's first and second choice, respectively. The traditional posterior calf fasciocutaneous flap should be the third choice because our study suggests that its availability is doubtful. Another site is recommended, when preoperative Doppler study suggests that the existence of musculocutaneous perforator is in doubt. Two clinical cases, with a medial sural perforator flap and a lateral sural perforator flap, respectively, are presented. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc. Microsurgery, 2009.     

A cadaver study of the vascular territories of dominant and nondominant internal mammary artery perforators

The perfusion territory of the pedicled internal mammary artery perforator flap has been described, but the number of perforators to be included in the flap's pedicle is controversial. We studied the vascular territory of the dominant perforator and the contribution of additional nondominant perforators to it. Therefore, the dominant perforators in 9 fresh cadavers and the nondominant perforators in 4 of these, were injected with water-based ink. The dominant perforator vascularized a territory extending from the superior border of the clavicle to the xiphoid, and from midsternal to the anterior axial fold, with a mean craniocaudal length of 19.4 cm (range, 17.0-24.0) and a mean mediolateral width of 18.6 cm (range, 16.0-22.5). Additional injection of nondominant perforators did not lead to any substantial enlargement of this territory. One single dominant perforator vascularizes a large part of the hemithorax, allowing for various flap designs. Nondominant perforators do not have to be included in the vascular pedicle of the internal mammary artery perforator flap, which leads to less donor-site morbidity.     

Selection of the recipient veins for additional anastomosis of the superficial inferior epigastric vein in breast reconstruction with free transverse rectus abdominis musculocutaneous or deep inferior epigastric artery perforator flaps

There have been many methods to use the superficial inferior epigastric vein (SIEV) for improvement of flap circulation during breast reconstruction with free abdominal flap. If the SIEV is used for the purpose of adding another draining route, selection of ideal recipient vein is a crucial step. We reviewed our experiences of using the SIEV as additional vein in free transverse rectus abdominis musculocutaneous or deep inferior epigastric artery perforator breast reconstruction to find out the ideal recipient vein for SIEV. Between April 2006 and July 2010, 153 cases of breast reconstruction were performed using free transverse rectus abdominis musculocutaneous or deep inferior epigastric artery perforator flaps. Additional SIEV anastomosis was performed in 45 cases with risk factors. First choice of the recipient vein was the lateral thoracic vein if the SIEV was placed laterally after the inset of the flap. If the lateral thoracic vein was ablated with lymph node dissection, the branch of the thoracoacromial vein was selected. If the SIEV was placed medially, the perforator of the internal mammary vein was used. No vascular compromise was observed in cases with additional SIEV anastomosis with those recipient veins, whereas 9 cases of flap-related complications were observed in the remaining 108 cases without additional SIEV anastomosis. The incidences of the venous congestion were significantly different between the 2 groups. Combination of the lateral thoracic vein, branch of the thoracoacromial vein, and the perforator of the internal mammary vein provided an excellent choice of the recipient vein for the SIEV with reliability and availability.     

Association of Venous Volume and Diameter of Incompetent Perforator Veins in the Lower Limb—Implications for Perforator Vein Surgery

PURPOSE: To define the association between venous volume as measured with air-plethysmography and the duplex ultrasound measured diameter of incompetent perforator of the lower limb. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Thirty-six patients with chronic venous disease were investigated with air-plethysmography and duplex ultrasound. Venous volume and venous filling time was measured. Venous filling index was calculated. The findings were correlated with the diameter of the largest incompetent perforator vein of the lower limb. RESULTS: Twenty-six patients with venous volume in the normal range (80-170 ml) had a median perforator diameter of 3.5 mm (IQR 3.2-4.3). Ten patients with venous volume above 170 ml had median perforator diameter of 5.5 mm (IQR 4.6-7.7). (p=0.001, Mann-Whitney). There was a correlation between the venous volume and diameter of the largest incompetent perforator vein. (Pearson correlation factor 0.69, p=0.01). CONCLUSION: Limb volume correlates to the diameter of the largest incompetent perforator of the calf. Increase in venous limb volume could be partly responsible for an increase in the size of calf perforators thereby promoting incompetence.     

Vessel-depleted neck: techniques for achieving microvascular reconstruction

BACKGROUND: In the neck, the recipient vessels most frequently used for microsurgical reconstruction are compromised by prior surgery and radiation. METHODS: We conducted a retrospective chart review of all patients who underwent microvascular reconstruction between July 2001 and June 2005. Donor vessels, vein grafts, and flap survival were examined. RESULTS: Fourteen of 197 patients (7%) were identified with a vessel-depleted neck. All patients had undergone a prior neck dissection and radiation (100%) or chemoradiation (42%). Free flap revascularization was achieved using the transverse cervical artery with a vein graft and a cephalic vein (4 patients), thoracoacromial artery and cephalic vein (3 patients), internal mammary artery and vein (3 patients), and inferior thyroid artery and cephalic vein (1 case). In 3 patients, the reverse flow thoracodorsal artery and cephalic vein were used to vascularize the scapular flap. CONCLUSION: The cephalic vein, transverse cervical, internal mammary, and thoracoacromial vessels represent reliable alternatives in the vessel-depleted neck.     

臀上、臀下动脉穿支皮瓣的解剖学研究

目的 为了克服传统臀大肌肌皮瓣切取肌肉所带来的缺点，继承其血运好、组织量大的优点，寻找改进手术操作的解剖学基础。方法 采用5具10侧成人尸体，对臀上动脉、臀下动脉及其相应区域皮肤的穿支血管分布情况，包括主干血管、穿支血管的走行层次、数量、管径及分布、穿出位置及体表投影、相应区域神经分布情况进行大体解剖学研究。另对6例12侧成年女性双侧臀上动脉穿支分布区，应用多普勒超声血流探测仪进行穿支定位。结果 臀上动脉、臀下动脉起于髂内动脉，臀上动脉穿支分布区域集中在坐骨旁及臀大肌中部，数量约为10～15支，穿支血管的长度3～8cm，其外径约为1～1．5mm。这些穿支血管穿过臀大肌及筋膜直接供应相应区皮肤。来自腰神经背支的臀上皮神经越过髂棘在髂后上嵴外侧穿出深筋膜，向臀部走行，与血管穿支密切相邻．支配臀部皮肤感觉。在皮瓣上缘切口处注意分离直径合适的神经，与皮瓣一同切取，可与受区相应神经(如为乳房再造可与第4肋问神经)相吻合。在成人6例12侧女性患者，用多普勒超声血流探测仪进行定位，每侧可明确定位3～5支，均集中于由髂后上嵴、股骨大转子及坐骨结节所形成的三角区内，此为穿支血管的体表投影区域。结论 臀上动脉穿支血管分布区域恒定，管径粗细合适，切取该区域皮瓣，完全可以不携带肌肉，既包含了肌皮瓣血运好、组织量大的优点，又克服了切取肌肉所带来的缺点，临床应用多普勒血流探测仪进行穿支血管定位，简单可靠。切取皮瓣可同时携带臀上神经，为与受区神经吻合成为可能。由于臀下动脉穿支分布区为臀部负重部位，且臀下动脉主干与坐骨神经毗邻，因此，建议临床上尽量不采用臀下动脉穿支皮瓣。臀上动脉穿支皮瓣预期可行带蒂移植用于修复骶尾部褥疮等创面，也可成为乳房再造又一供区。     

Vasculature of the peroneal artery: an anatomic study focused on the perforator vessels

Based on the dissection of 20 fresh cadaver legs, the authors have further defined the vascular anatomy of the peroneal artery and its cutaneous perforator vessels. They identified a total of 95 cutaneous perforators of the peroneal artery greater then 0.3 mm in 20 legs. The average number of cutaneous perforators was 4.8 (range: three to seven) per leg. The cutaneous perforators were either musculocutaneous (34 percent) or septocutaneous (66 percent). The musculocutaneous perforators were found predominantly in the upper two-thirds of the lower leg; the septocutaneous perforators were located in the lower two-thirds of the leg. The external diameter of the cutaneous perforators at the posterior border of the fibula was 0.6 (range: 0.3 to 1.5) mm. The blood supply of the proximal fibula epiphysis and fibula head was found not to be in the vascular territory of the peroneal artery. These results are the basis of the established osteoseptocutaneous fibula transfer, the peroneal fasciocutaneous free flap, and the double-paddle peroneal tissue transfer that all require dissection of highly vascularized tissue adjacent to the fibula, in order to reach the peroneal vessels. These constant anatomic findings should encourage the surgeon to harvest skin flaps just to the level of the posterior border of the fibula, thereby creating perforator flaps based on the peroneal system.     

Microvascular Anastomosis of Submillimeter Vessels—A Training Model in Rats

The advent of supermicrosurgery, which allows the anastomosis and dissection of small-caliber vessels ranging from 0.5 to 0.8 mm in diameter, has led to the development of new reconstructive operations. Lymphaticovenous anastomosis, fingertip replantation and perforator flap surgery all require the supermicrosurgical techniques. In this paper, a rat model is described for the training of anastomosis of submillimeter vessels. Spraque-Dawley rats with the weight of 300 to 500 g were used as the training models. The gender, weight and size of the femoral vessels of 20 rats were recorded. The segment of the femoral vessel which was lying on the ventral muscle group of the hind limb and distal to the origin of the superficial inferior epigastric vessels was used for the practice of microvascular anastomosis. In this study, there were 13 male and 7 female rats. The mean weight of the 20 rats was 395.6 g. The mean diameters of the femoral artery and femoral vein were 0.54 mm and 0.56 mm respectively. The consistent size and anatomy of the femoral vessel make it a suitable training model for microvascular anastomosis of submillimeter vessels.     

Intraoperative evaluation of blood flow in the internal mammary or thoracodorsal artery as a recipient vessel for a free TRAM flap

Although the free microvascular transverse rectus abdominis musculocutaneous (TRAM) flap is in routine use for breast reconstruction, little is known of its hemodynamics. The purpose of this study was to determine whether any differences exist when the free TRAM flap is anastomosed to the thoracodorsal or internal mammary vessels. The study comprised 25 patients receiving a free TRAM flap for breast reconstruction. The thoracodorsal vessels were used as recipients in 21 patients and the internal mammary vessels were used in 4 patients. Blood flow rate was measured directly in the donor and recipient arteries, and after anastomosis by a transit-time ultrasonic flowmeter (CardioMed). Two- and 3-mm probes were used. The blood flow rate in the donor artery (deep inferior epigastric) before flap dissection was 11 +/- 6 ml per minute (mean +/- standard deviation). The rate was significantly (p < 0.05) lower (5 +/- 3 ml per minute) in the recipient thoracodorsal artery than in the donor, but after transplantation it increased to 14 +/- 5 ml per minute (p < 0.05), attaining the same value as the donor artery. The blood flow rate in the intact internal mammary artery was significantly higher (25 +/- 10 ml per minute) than in the donor and thoracodorsal arteries, but after anastomosis it dropped to the same value (12 +/- 3 ml per minute; p < 0.05) as the donor artery. The intake of blood in TRAM flaps supplied by the intemal mammary artery seems to be no greater than that in free flaps anastomosed to thoracodorsal vessels, although the flow in the internal mammary artery was much higher. The authors concluded that the blood supply in a free TRAM flap is independent of the flow in the recipient artery and that thoracodorsal vessels, although often in a scarred bed and radiated, are as suitable for anastomosing a free TRAM flap as are internal mammary vessels.     

Skin perforators of back region: anatomical study and clinical applications

BACKGROUND: Despite widespread studies that have been commonly performed recently on skin perforators and perforator flaps of various regions of the body, investigations on the back region of the body are still insufficient. This study investigates the anatomical characteristics and clinical applications of perforating vessels in the back region. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The skin on the back region between the right and left, 7th to 11th thoracic vertebrae of 10 fresh cadavers were raised as flaps. Perforating vessels perfusing the skin with pedicle diameters of over 1 mm were included in the study. The anatomical localization, diameter, pedicle size, and the supplying vessels of these pedicles were determined. Utilizing this information, the defects of 8 patients with large meningomyeloceles included in the study were closed with prepared intercostal artery perforating flap. RESULTS: Perforators of the back region were seen to originate from the posterior intercostal vessels. There were a higher number of perforators on the right side of the body. The most commonly observed perforators were the 7th and 9th posterior intercostal perforators, and their diameters were larger. All flaps were viable following perforator flap closure for defects in 8 patients with large meningomyelocele included in the clinical study. No problems were encountered in the postoperative 3-month follow-up of cases. CONCLUSION: Owing to the low donor area morbidity and wide motion capabilities, the perforator flap is a new choice of flap for the back region. Perforator pedicle flaps supplied by the posterior intercostal vessels may be safely used in congenital tissue defects, such as meningomyelocele, tumors, and traumatic defects.     

An anatomical study of the saphenous nerve, artery, and artery perforators within the thigh using cadaveric dissection

Although the saphenous flap has been used in reconstruction as a free flap, there has not yet been an anatomic study about the perforators of the saphenous artery. The aim of this study is to investigate the anatomy of the saphenous artery and the number and locations of its perforators. We dissected parts of 10 legs from 5 cadavers. Measurements of the positions of the dissected saphenous arteries and their perforators were taken from the medial epicondyle of the femur. We observed the origin, end point, and the diameter of each of the arteries, and we investigated the numbers and locations of both septocutaneous and musculocutaneous perforators. The average length of saphenous artery was 14.8 cm, and it was located 12.0 cm above the medial epicondyle of the femur. The average diameter was 1.63 mm. A median average of 4 perforators branched out from a single saphenous artery. There was a median average of 2 septocutaneous perforators and 2 musculocutaneous perforators from the saphenous artery. The perforators were mainly located at 7 cm proximal to the medial epicondyle of the femur. The saphenous artery has many perforators and is therefore useful as the pedicle of the perforator flap. The saphenous artery perforator flap can be designed within 7 cm proximal to the medial epicondyle of the femur. Our results may be helpful in the applications of the neurocutaneous flap using the saphenous artery or the perforator flap based on septocutaneous perforators.     

腹壁下动脉穿支皮瓣血管穿支及感觉神经的应用解剖

目的　为腹壁下动脉穿支 (deepinferiorepigastricperforator,DIEP)皮瓣感觉的修复提供解剖学依据。方法　对 9具 18侧常规防腐固定的成年女尸腹前外侧壁进行详细解剖学研究。结果　腹壁下动脉穿支主要位于腹直肌鞘区 ,平均每侧 17 5支 ,直径≥ 0 5mm者 7 8支 ,直径≥ 0 5mm者 9 7支 ,其中皮瓣上半部最多 ,内侧略多于外侧。DIEP皮瓣主要位于T9～T12神经节段范围内 ,5 6 2 %DIEP有感觉神经穿支伴行 ,而粗大DIEP的感觉神经伴行率高达 80 .9%。结论　切取以腹壁下动脉穿支为血供来源、以肋间神经感觉支为感觉支配的DIEP皮瓣时 ,穿支选择应以脐周外侧粗大神经血管束为首选。