Contrast-enhanced ultrasonography to diagnose gallbladder perforation

Aim

The purpose of this study was to evaluate contrast-enhanced ultrasonography (CEUS) as a modality for diagnosing perforation of the gallbladder (GB) and pericholecystic hepatic abscess.

Methods

This retrospective study comprised 6 patients with acute cholecystitis and GB perforation plus pericholecystic hepatic abscess who underwent conventional US and CEUS imaging. The following sonographic features were examined: GB contour, defect in the GB wall, and pericholecystic hepatic mass. The findings of conventional US and CEUS were compared.

Results

Conventional US revealed a defect in the GB wall in 2 patients and partially obscured GB wall in 4 patients. Pericholecystic masses were visualized as isohypoechoic masses in 3 and mixed cystic-solid masses in 3 patients. Contrast-enhanced US revealed hyperenhancement of the GB wall during the early arterial phase, and a defect was seen in every patient. The pericholecystic masses showed heterogeneous enhancement with a honeycomb-like appearance during the arterial phase–interpreted abscesses.

Conclusion

Contrast-enhanced US clearly visualized defects in the GB wall and pericholecystic abscesses in patients with GB perforation. The results indicate that CEUS is a useful modality for the diagnosis of GB perforation.     

Ultrasonographic findings in acute acalculous cholecystitis

Acute acalculous cholecystitis (AAC) is usually seen as a complication of major surgery or trauma. Although this entity is well-known in the surgical literature, little has been written about it in the radiologic literature. A review of patient records from 1975 through 1982 revealed 16 patients with pathologically confirmed AAC on whom at least 1 sonographic study had been performed. Thickening of the gallbladder wall, a subserosal halo of edema, pericholecystic abscess, and marked gallbladder distention were consistent findings in AAC. In the proper clinical setting, these otherwise nonspecific findings allow a prompt and accurate diagnosis.     

Gallbladder perforation: Comparison of US findings with CT

We compared the ultrasound (US) findings of gallbladder (GB) perforation with computed tomography (CT) in 13 patients with GB perforation confirmed at surgery. The common findings of GB perforation were pericholecystic fluid collection and layering of GB wall on US, pericholecystic fluid collection, streaky omentum or mesentery, and GB wall defect on CT. Pericholecystic fluid collection, layering of GB wall, and cholelithiasis were similarly detected on US or CT. GB wall defect and/or bulging of the GB wall suggested a site of perforation was revealed in five patients (38.5%) on US and nine (69.2%) on CT. CT further disclosed the findings of streaky omentum or mesentery (84.6%). CT was superior to US for diagnosis of GB perforation.     

Application of trocar technique in ultrasound-guided drainage of the gallbladder.

OBJECTIVE: The ultrasound-guided drainage of the gallbladder (USDGB) is mainly performed by Seldinger technique. We aim to evaluate the use of the easier performable trocar technique in draining critically ill patients with acute calculous or acalculous cholecystitis. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Critically ill patients with acute acalculous (AAC; n=29) or calculous cholecystitis (ACC; n=7) underwent trocar technique application of USD. Technical problems, complications and patients' further courses were recorded. RESULTS: In group 1 (AAC) 29/29 patients could be drained without problems or complications. Three dislocations of the USDGB were seen. In group 2 (CAC) only four out of seven could be drained by this technique, in these four patients (a) major bleeding and (b) pericholecystic fluid collections were observed. In both groups no further complications during USDGB or its removal were seen. CONCLUSIONS: In acute acalculous cholecystitis the use of trocar technique in applying the USDGB is easy and bedside performable, in acute calculous cholecystitis the USD should be done by Seldinger technique.     

Complicated cholecystitis: the complementary roles of sonography and computed tomography

Acute cholecystitis is a common cause of abdominal pain in the Western world. Unless treated promptly, patients with acute cholecystitis may develop complications such as gangrenous, perforated, or emphysematous cholecystitis. Because of the increased morbidity and mortality of complicated cholecystitis, early diagnosis and treatment are essential for optimal patient care. Nevertheless, complicated cholecystitis may pose significant challenges with cross-sectional imaging, including sonography and computed tomography (CT). Interpreting radiologists should be familiar with the spectrum of sonographic findings seen with complicated cholecystitis and as well as understand the complementary role of CT. Worrisome imaging findings for complicated cholecystitis include intraluminal findings (sloughed mucosa, hemorrhage, abnormal gas), gallbladder wall abnormalities (striations, asymmetric wall thickening, abnormal gas, loss of sonoreflectivity and contrast enhancement), and pericholecystic changes (echogenic fat, pericholecystic fluid, abscess formation). Finally, diagnosis of complicated cholecystitis by sonography and CT can guide alternative treatments including minimally invasive percutaneous and endoscopic options.     

Spontaneous Perforation of Acalculous Gall Bladder Presenting as Acute Abdomen

Background

Acute abdominal pain is commonly encountered in the emergency department (ED), but a diagnosis of gall bladder perforation (GBP) is rarely considered in the absence of predisposing factors.

Objectives

This article will highlight the risk factors, diagnosis, and management of GBP, a rare but potentially life-threatening biliary pathology.

Case Report

A 73-year-old diabetic man presented to the ED with a 12-h history of severe upper abdominal pain. He was hemodynamically stable, but abdominal examination showed distention, guarding, and diffuse tenderness. Abdominal X-ray study showed mildly distended small bowel loops without any air-fluid levels. Abdominal sonography revealed mild ascites and pericholecystic fluid collection but no gall bladder calculi. Laboratory reports documented a white blood cell count of 13,700/mm³ and elevated serum amylase of 484 IU/L. A contrast-enhanced computed tomography (CT) scan of the abdomen suggested discontinuity of the gall bladder wall along with fluid accumulation in the pericholecystic, perihepatic, right subphrenic, and right paracolic spaces. In view of the possibility of spontaneous GBP developing as a complication of acute acalculous cholecystitis, laparotomy was planned. At surgery, several liters of bile-stained peritoneal fluid were aspirated and inspection of the gall bladder revealed a perforation at the fundus. After cholecystectomy, the patient had an uneventful recovery.

Conclusion

The diagnosis of spontaneous gall bladder perforation should be considered in elderly patients presenting to the ED with symptoms and signs of peritonitis even in the absence of pre-existing gall bladder disease. Abdominal CT scan is an invaluable tool for the diagnosis, and early surgical intervention is usually life-saving.     

Can acute cholecystitis with gallbladder perforation be detected preoperatively by computed tomography in ED?: Correlation with clinical data and computed tomography features

Purpose

The purpose of this study is to determine which computed tomography (CT) findings and clinical data can help to diagnose gallbladder perforation in acute cholecystitis.

Materials and Methods

The medical records and CT findings of patients with surgically proven acute cholecystitis within the last recent 5 years were retrospectively reviewed and compared between 2 groups with and without gallbladder perforation.

Results

A total of 75 patients with acute cholecystitis were included in the study, and 16 patients were proven to have gallbladder perforation. Higher mortality rate was found in the perforation group (18.8% vs 1.7%; P = .029). Older age (>70 years; P = .004) and higher percentage of segmented neutrophil (>80%; P = .027) were significant clinical factors for predicting gallbladder perforation in acute cholecystitis. The significant CT signs related to gallbladder perforation included visualized gallbladder wall defect (P = .000), intramural gas (P = .043), intraluminal gas (P = .000), intraluminal membrane (P = .043), pericholecystic abscess or biloma formation (P = .009), intraperitoneal free air (P = .001), and presence of ascites in the absence of hypoalbuminemia or other intraabdominal malignancy (P = .017). In multivariate analysis, visualized gallbladder wall defect was the most significant predicting CT feature for diagnosing gallbladder perforation in acute cholecystitis.

Conclusion

Elderly patients with higher segmented neutrophil and CT signs of gallbladder wall defect associated with acute cholecystitis may have high possibility of gallbladder rupture.     

Role of sonography in the diagnosis of gallbladder perforation

PURPOSE: Gallbladder perforation is a dreaded complication of acute cholecystitis that is associated with a high mortality rate. Early detection of gallbladder perforation reduces the associated mortality and morbidity rates. The purpose of this study was to highlight the role of sonography in the diagnosis of gallbladder perforation and to compare the diagnostic accuracy of sonography with that of CT. METHODS: We retrospectively evaluated the sonographic and CT findings in surgically proven cases of gallbladder perforation. RESULTS: In 18 of 23 cases, both sonography and CT had been performed; in the other 5 cases, only sonography had been performed. Sonography helped to diagnose the defect in the gallbladder wall and gallbladder perforation in 16 (70%) of 23 patients. In the 18 cases in which both sonography and CT had been performed, sonography showed the wall defect in 11 cases (61%), whereas CT was diagnostic in 14 cases (78%). The difference between sonography and CT in the ability to visualize a defect in the gallbladder wall was not statistically significant. CONCLUSIONS: Sonography is useful for diagnosing gallbladder perforation and detecting the defect in the gallbladder wall. We believe that sonography should be the first-line imaging modality for evaluating the patients in these cases.     

Gangrenous cholecystitis: new observations on sonography.

We studied 25 patients with gangrenous cholecystitis and observed a new sonographic finding--striated thickening of the gallbladder wall--and three patterns of pericholecystic fluid collections. Heterogeneous thickening of the gallbladder wall was characterized by either multiple striations (alternating hypoechoic and hyperechoic layers) or irregular mass-like protrusions projecting into the gallbladder lumen. We observed striated thickening far more frequently (in 10 of 25 patients) than other findings reported previously as being associated with gangrenous cholecystitis, such as intraluminal membranes (1 in 25 patients) and masslike protrusions into the gallbladder lumen (1 in 25 patients). Although the sensitivity and specificity of this finding cannot be determined by our study, we believe that mural striations in cases of acute cholecystitis should raise the question of gangrenous changes. Additionally, we found that two subtypes of pericholecystic fluid collections (types II and III) were associated with gallbladder wall perforation and abscess formation more frequently than type I collections.     

急性胆道感染的B超诊断分析

文章对经手术病理证实的６５例急性胆囊炎和５例急性化脓性胆管炎的声像图进行总结分析。结果：急性胆囊炎表现：胆囊增大,张力增高,多数病例囊壁增厚,胆囊内可见点、片状中等回声。坏疽胆囊炎、胆囊穿孔应综合断。结论地急性胆道感染Ｂ超是最有效的影像诊断方法。     

Point-of-care ultrasound diagnosis of pediatric cholecystitis in the ED

Objective

The diagnosis of cholecystitis or biliary tract disease in children and adolescents is an uncommon occurrence in the emergency department and other acute care settings. Misdiagnosis and delays in diagnosing children with cholecystitis or biliary tract disease of up to months and years have been reported in the literature. We discuss the technique and potential utility of point-of-care ultrasound evaluation in a series of pediatric patients with suspected cholecystitis or biliary tract disease.

Methods

We present a nonconsecutive case series of pediatric and adolescent patients with abdominal pain diagnosed with cholecystitis or biliary tract disease using point-of-care ultrasound. The published sonographic criteria is 3 mm or less for the upper limits of normal gallbladder wall thickness and is 3 mm or less for normal common bile duct diameter (measured from inner wall to inner wall) in children. Measurements above these limits were considered abnormal, in addition to the sonographic presence of gallstones, pericholecystic fluid, and a sonographic Murphy's sign.

Results

Point-of care ultrasound screening detected 13 female pediatric patients with cholecystitis or biliary tract disease when the authors were on duty over a 5-year period. Diagnoses were confirmed by radiology imaging or at surgery and surgical pathology.

Conclusions

Point-of-care ultrasound to detect pediatric cholecystitis or biliary tract disease may help avoid misdiagnosis or delays in diagnosis in children with abdominal pain.     

Ultrasound in postoperative acalculous cholecystitis

Eleven patients were examined by ultrasound before undergoing cholecystectomy (n=9) or cholecystostomy (n=2) for acalculous cholecystitis after abdominal surgery. The ultrasound images were analyzed retrospectively and compared with the surgical and histologic findings. The results indicate several established ultrasound criteria of cholecystitis to be less reliable than usual. Although 10 of 11 patients were on parenteral hyperalimentation, gross distention of the gallbladder was observed in only 3. In 4 of 7 patients, in whom pericholecystic fluid was observed, no gallbladder perforation was found at surgery. However, thickening of the gallbladder wall was displayed in 10 of 11 cases, combined with a sonolucent intramural layer in 6. Furthermore, intraluminal nonshadowing echogenic densities correlated with empyema or hemorrhage in 5 of 8 cases. In conclusion, despite several limitations, ultrasound can be of considerable help when one is deciding to perform repeat laparotomy when acalculous cholecystitis is suspected.     

Ultrasonographic findings in peptic ulcer disease and pancreatitis that simulate primary gallbladder disease.

The ultrasonographic findings in two patients with peptic ulcer disease and one patient with acute pancreatitis are reported. In each case, the sonographic appearance simulated intrinsic gallbladder disease. Two patients had focal pericholecystic fluid collections and one had an inflammatory mass adjacent to the gallbladder. Each patient also demonstrated gallbladder wall thickening. Findings of a pericholecystic fluid collection or an inflammatory mass adjacent to the gallbladder appear to be nonspecific for cholecystitis, and should also suggest inflammation of adjacent organs.     

Percutaneous cholecystostomy in critically Ill patients

Sixteen critically ill patients underwent percutaneous cholecystostomy because of suspected acute cholecystitis. The procedure was technically successful, although 11 of 16 patients died subsequently because of various complications of their underlying primary disorders. We reviewed this series to reassess the value of percutaneous cholecystostomy. Four of 11 patients with definite acute cholecystitis (group 1) were cured by this technique, but three required surgery because of gallbladder wall necrosis. Two of these were among four cases which had demonstrated pericholecystic fluid collections on computed tomography (CT) or ultrasound of the abdomen. There were also five patients (group 2) in whom acute cholecystitis or its relationship to patients' symptoms were not fully determined, and four of them did not improve after percutaneous cholecystostomy. We conclude that this technique has a lower success rate in critically ill patients than reported previously.     

Acute cholecystitis: CT findings

Some patients with acute cholecystitis may have symptoms suggestive of an abscess or other intra-abdominal inflammation and, therefore, may be referred for a CT of the abdomen. This report reviews the pathophysiology, clinical presentation, and CT findings of acute cholecystitis (gallstones, wall thickening, distention, pericholecystic fluid, and pericholecystic stranding). Pitfalls and complications of the diagnosis are discussed. Those scenarios where CT may prove superior to ultrasound or hepatobiliary scintigraphy are highlighted.     

术前超声检查预测急性胆囊炎腹腔镜胆囊切除术的技术难度

目的评价术前超声检查预测急性胆囊炎腹腔镜手术技术难度.方法对73例因急性胆囊炎行腹腔镜胆囊切除术的患者行超声检查,超声检测参数:胆囊容积、胆囊壁厚度、胆囊壁增厚类型、结石大小、结石移动性、胆囊与胆囊床的粘连、肝与胆囊间的脂肪厚度、胆囊窝液体、总胆管扩张、总胆管结石、胆囊壁彩色和脉冲多普勒征像、邻近肝脏内的彩色和脉冲多普勒信号.腹腔镜胆囊切除手术分5步,每步根据难易程度记分:困难记1分,容易记0分,总分相加为总的难度分数.评价术前超声表现与总的难度分数、每一步难度分数、手术时间长短是否有显著关系.结果胆囊容积≥50 cm3、胆囊壁厚度≥3 mm、胆囊壁内丰富彩色血流信号与手术总难度分数显著相关;胆囊容积增大使粘连胆囊及Calot'三角分离困难;胆囊壁增厚及胆囊粘连者胆囊取出腹腔时较难;胆囊壁彩色血流丰富、邻近肝脏血流增加与手术时间延长有显著关系.结论术前测定胆囊容积、胆囊壁厚度、胆囊壁彩色血流丰富程度有助于预测急性胆囊炎腹腔镜胆囊切除手术中的技术难度.     

Relationship between serum Pentraxin 3 and pro-adrenomedullin levels with acute cholecystitis

ObjectivesThe perforation of the gallbladder (GP) is one of the most significant complications of acute cholecystitis. A biochemical marker indicating the GP has not been determined fully to date. Pentraxin 3 and pro-adrenomedullin (Pro-ADM) proteins are novel acute phase reactants. We aimed to investigate the relationship between serum Pentraxin 3 and Pro-ADM and the GP in patients with acute cholecystitis. Methods: This prospective cross-sectional study was conducted on patients with acute cholecystitis in a tertiary care emergency department during the six-month period. The acute cholecystitis patients were divided into two groups as with GP, and without GP. Additionally, patients with GP were evaluated according to pericholecystic fluid and gallbladder wall thickness. Serum levels of pro-ADM and pentraxin 3, WBC, CRP and sedimentation rate were measured in all patients.ResultsA total of 60 patients with acute cholecystitis were included in the study. Pro-ADM and pentraxin 3 levels were significantly higher in patients with GP and the with pericholecystic free fluid (p < 0.0001). There was no significant relationship between serum pentraxin 3 and pro-ADM with gallbladder wall thickness (p > 0.05) According to the ROC analysis, serum Pentraxin 3 levels of ≥4.9 ng/mL could predict GP with a sensitivity of 75% and a specificity of 85% and serum pro-ADM levels of ≥97 nmol/L with sensitivity and specificity of 100% and 95%.ConclusionOur study results reveal that serum Pentraxin 3 and pro-ADM may be novel biochemical parameters in the detection of GP in acute cholecystitis cases.     

Discrimination of gangrenous from uncomplicated acute cholecystitis: Accuracy of CT findings

In acute cholecystitis, the presence of gangrene is associated with higher morbidity and mortality and necessitates open surgical intervention rather than laparoscopic cholecystectomy. As Murphy’s sign may be absent, gangrene may not be detected ultrasonographically. This retrospective study evaluated indications of acute gangrenous cholecystitis on computed tomography (CT) in 25 patients, who were proven as having acute cholecysitis surgically and pathologically within 3 days of pre-operative CT. The CT images were reviewed by two board-certified radiologists blind to the initial CT report. Acute gangrenous cholecystitis was significantly correlated with the CT signs of perfusion defect (PD) of the gallbladder wall (P = 0.02), pericholecystic stranding (PS) (P = 0.028), and no-gallstone condition (No-ST) (P = 0.026). The presence of PD was associated with acute gangrenous cholecystitis with a relatively high accuracy (80%), a sensitivity of 70.6%, a specificity of 100%, a positive predictive value (PPV) of 100%, and a negative predictive value (NPV) of 61.5%. The combination CT signs of PD or No-ST improved the accuracy for acute gangrenous cholecystitis to 92%, with a sensitivity, specificity, PPV, and NPV of 88.2%, 100%, 100%, and 80%, respectively. Other CT signs were highly specific for acute gangrenous cholecystitis but of low sensitivity, including mucosal hemorrhage, mucosal sloughing, wall irregularity, pericholecystic abscess, gas formation, and portal venous thrombosis. CT was found to accurately diagnose acute cholecystitis, with the presence of PD, PS, or No-ST significantly correlated with that of gangrenous change. Thus, CT is useful in the preoperative detection of acute gangrenous cholecystitis.     

Further observations on the usefulness of the sonographic Murphy sign in the evaluation of suspected acute cholecystitis

A positive sonographic Murphy sign, the presence of maximal tenderness elicited over a sonographically localized gallbladder, has been reported to be a helpful adjunctive finding in patients with proven acute cholecystitis who are evaluated with ultrasonography. We evaluated 200 patients with right upper quadrant pain, thought to be acute cholecystitis. Results of ultrasound examinations and subsequent follow-up were tabulated. The sensitivity of the sonographic Murphy sign in acute cholecystitis was 86% with a specificity of 35%, positive predictive value of 43%, and negative predictive value of 82%. The sensitivity of the sonographic findings, including stones, gallbladder wall edema, and pericholecystic fluid collections, was 93%, a specificity of 53%. The combination of the Murphy sign accompanied by gallstones yielded a specificity of 77%. The large number of false positives, and only moderate improvement in specificity when accompanied by gallstones, makes this sign unreliable in separating acute from chronic cholecystitis. © 1995 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Diagnosis of gallbladder perforation in acute acalculous cholecystitis in critically ill patients

In the presence of ascites ultrasound is not appropriate to distinguish between gallbladder perforation and acute acalculous cholecystitis. However, the correct and early diagnosis of gallbladder perforation is important for the treatment and prognosis. We report 4 critically ill patients with ascites. All patients had evidence of gallbladder perforation by ultrasound and underwent cholecystectomy: 2 patients had gallbladder perforation, but 2 had acalculous cholecystitis without perforation. markedly elevated serum alkaline phosphatase was the only discriminating finding indicating gallbladder perforation.