Neonatal hypoglycaemia in infants of diabetic mothers

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether umbilical cord blood glucose correlates with subsequent hypoglycaemia after birth in infants of well-controlled diabetic mothers. METHODOLOGY: Thirty-eight term infants of well-controlled diabetic mothers were enrolled. Five mothers had pre-existing diabetes. Of the 33 gestational diabetic mothers, 16 were managed on insulin and 17 on diet. Maternal blood glucose was maintained between 4 and 8 mmol/L during labour and delivery. Infants' plasma glucose levels were measured from venous cord blood and serially, at less than 30 min, 1 h and 2 h of life by glucose hexokinase method. Blood glucose levels were further monitored by bedside Dextrostix for 24 h. RESULTS: Eighteen (47%) infants developed hypoglycaemia (blood glucose level less than 2 mmol/L) during the first 2 h of life. There was no difference in the cord blood glucose levels between infants with or without hypoglycaemia (3.7 +/- 1.1 vs 4.5 +/- 1.1 mmol/L, respectively). Infants of mothers with diabetes diagnosed prior to 28 weeks gestation were at a higher risk of developing hypoglycaemia (8 of 10 vs 10 of 28, OR 7.2, 95%CI 1.3-40.7). Hypoglycaemic infants were of significantly higher birthweight, and were more likely to be born to Caucasian mothers and by Caesarean section. Raised maternal fructosamine blood level, the need for insulin treatment or the infant's haematocrit were not different between infants with or without hypoglycaemia. CONCLUSIONS: In well-controlled diabetic mothers, the incidence of early hypoglycaemia in infants is still high, particularly in those mothers who had a longer duration of diabetes. Cord blood glucose level did not identify the infants with hypoglycaemia.     

The establishment of the Australian and New Zealand Neonatal Network

The Australian and New Zealand Neonatal Network was established in 1994 to monitor high-risk newborns admitted for care. Uniquely, all units in both countries have participated since inception, making it integral to the care of babies. The network's objectives include auditing care, publishing aggregated results annually, providing feedback to units, monitoring technologies and developing clinical indicators. Networking provides a forum for clinicians and a consortium of knowledge and advice. It facilitates collaborative research and clinical groups, producing projects from observational studies to randomised controlled trials. Members take a major role in reviewing the evidence for care and ensuring its effective use in clinical practice.     

Laryngeal mask airway use during neonatal resuscitation: a survey of practice across newborn intensive care units and neonatal retrieval services in Australian New Zealand Neonatal Network

This is an Australia New Zealand Neonatal Network (ANZNN) wide survey to identify current practice and guide future practice improvement for the use of laryngeal mask airway (LMA) during neonatal resuscitation. An online questionnaire containing 13 questions was sent out to all tertiary neonatal centres (n = 29 units) and neonatal transport units (n = 4) within ANZNN. The non‐tertiary (level‐II) centres were not included. Response from a senior neonatologist at each centre was received and evaluated. Twenty‐two services (67%) had LMA available; of that only, 40% felt the competency of staff to be adequate; and 59% had routine training in LMA use. During neonatal resuscitation, 68% units reported using LMA if endotracheal intubation was unsuccessful after two or more failed intubation attempts and only 18% used it before intubation if face mask ventilation was inadequate. This survey highlighted variations in practice across the tertiary neonatal centres in ANZNN network. One‐third of the units lack LMA availability and the units with LMA, face concerns of underutilisation and lack of skills for its use.     

Neonatal resuscitation: review of ventilation equipment and survey of practice in Australia and New Zealand

OBJECTIVE: The equipment used to provide positive pressure ventilation at neonatal resuscitation varies between institutions. Available devices were reviewed and their use surveyed in a geographically defined region. The aim of this study was to establish which resuscitation equipment is used at neonatal intensive care units in Australia and New Zealand. METHODS: A questionnaire was sent to a neonatologist at each of the 29 neonatal intensive care units in Australia and New Zealand, asking which resuscitation equipment they used. If it was not returned, follow up was by email and telephone. RESULTS: Data was obtained from all units. Round face masks are used at all centres. Anatomically shaped masks are infrequently used at two of the three centres (10%) that have them. Straight endotracheal tubes are used exclusively at 23 (79%) centres. Shouldered tubes are used infrequently at three of the six centres that have them. The Laerdal Infant Resuscitator self-inflating bag is used at 22 (76%) centres. Flow-inflating bags are used at 12 (41%) centres. The Neopuff Infant Resuscitator is used at 14 (48%) centres. Varying oxygen concentrations are provided at delivery at 6/25 (24%) centres. CONCLUSIONS: There is a paucity of evidence for the efficacy of the equipment used currently to resuscitate newborn infants. This complete survey of the tertiary centres in a geographical region shows considerable variation in practice, reflecting this lack of evidence and consequent uncertainty among clinicians. Further research is necessary to determine which devices are preferable for this most important and common intervention.     

Monitoring the neonatal brain: a survey of current practice among Australian and New Zealand neonatologists

AIMS: There is considerable variation in the use of brain imaging and electrophysiological monitoring of encephalopathic term infants. The aims of this study were (i) to document the current practice among Australian and New Zealand neonatologists; and (ii) to identify the factors that influence local practice. METHODS: A postal questionnaire was sent to all 152 neonatologists in Australia and New Zealand. A hypothetical scenario of an encephalopathic term infant was presented and clinicians were asked a series of questions relating to their use of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), computed tomography, ultrasound, electroencephalography and amplitude integrated electroencephalography. RESULTS: There was a 62% response rate. Twenty-two per cent of respondents would not routinely perform an MRI brain scan in the given scenario. Limited availability, expense, logistics of transport and a lack of confidence in the ability of MRI to provide additional clinical information appear to be the main factors affecting practice. When a scan is performed, the majority of respondents (72%) perform the scan on day 5 or later. Twenty-three per cent of respondents experience significant delays when they request an MRI scan. Regarding electrophysiological monitoring, amplitude integrated electroencephalography would be used by 62% of respondents in the given scenario. CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrates that MRI is now widely used by neonatologists in Australia and New Zealand. However, local resource limitations and a lack of confidence in the utility of MRI continue to limit its use.     

Family-centred and developmental care on the neonatal unit

Admission of a sick or preterm newborn to the neonatal unit can be an extremely stressful experience for both the infant and family. Parent-infant interaction may be considerably hampered. This interaction is, however recognized to be vital and confers a range of benefits to parents and babies and contributes to the physical, emotional and social well-being of both. Developmental care consists of a large range of medical and nursing interventions that help to reduce the stress of preterm infants in neonatal units and allow optimal neurobehavioral development of the infant. Family-Centred and Family Integrated Care practices promote parental participation in the care of their infant on NICU whilst recognizing them as integral members of the care team and primary decision-makers for their infant. Established historical practices and beliefs can present as challenges to the implementation and sustenance of family-centred and developmental care. We review these challenges in order to develop strategies to successfully implement this important aspect of neonatal care.     

早产儿胎膜早破与呼吸窘迫综合征

目的探讨胎膜早破对早产儿呼吸窘迫综合征(RDS)发生的影响。方法回顾性分析1997-2000年在我院分娩、胎龄为27-33周的早产儿。依据产妇胎膜早破是否超过24 h,将早产儿分为胎膜早破组44例与对照组99例。采用t检验、x2 检验及Fisher确切概率计算法分析数据。结果两组胎龄分别为(32.30±1.31)、(31.9±1.7)周,出生体质量分别为(1834±378)g、(1838±431)g。两组破膜至胎儿娩出时间分别为(111.9±124.6)、(3.4±6.0)h,经统计分析有显著差异(P<0.001)。胎膜早破组RDS发生率显著低于对照组(P<0.05)。胎膜早破组孕产妇官腔内感染率与新生儿败血症发生率较对照组高,但无显著差异。结论对于<33周的早产儿,胎膜早破超过24 h可能促进胎肺成熟,进而显著降低RDS发生。     

A survey of neonatal nutrition policies and practices in the UK and Eire

Optimal nutrition is one of the fundamental components for infants to reach their full growth and neurodevelopmental potential. Best practice is facilitated by a contemporaneous, multidisciplinary, evidence-based nutrition policy. Such evidence has recently been reviewed. We have assessed: the prevalence of nutrition policies in neonatal units in the UK and Eire; their application to hypothetical cases; the availability of dietetic input; and whether any differences existed between non-regional and regional units. A standardized questionnaire was devised by a multidisciplinary group and posted to all 255 neonatal units in the UK and Eire in 2002. Replies from 67 neonatal units were received: 48 out of 233 non-regional and 19 out of 22 regional units. A feeding policy was present in 33 units, and regular access to dietitians occurred in 37 units. For a hypothetical infant less than 28 weeks' gestation, enteral feeds would be commenced at 0-2 days in 81% of non-regional and 94% of regional units (P = ns), and be continuous in 11% of non-regional and 32% of regional units, and bolus feeding in 89% of non-regional and 68% of regional units (P = ns). Routine fortification of breastmilk would occur more frequently in non-regional units (96%) than in regional units (79%) (P = 0.050). Vitamin and iron supplements would be given to infants receiving postdischarge or high-energy milks in 68% of non-regional units and in 79% of regional units (P = ns). Calorie counts (63% regional vs. 8% non-regional, P < 0.001), and daily weights (68% regional vs. 33% non-regional, P = 0.014), were used more frequently in regional units. Many units surveyed did not have a nutrition policy. Many infants receive unnecessary additional vitamins and supplements. Practice is variable throughout the country, but we found no evidence of major differences between regional and non-regional units, apart from their monitoring of growth and rates of breastmilk fortifier usage.     

New Zealand surveillance of neonatal vitamin K deficiency bleeding (VKDB): 1998-2008

Aim: To undertake surveillance of vitamin K deficiency bleeding (VKDB) from 1998, through the transition to a new single licensed vitamin K preparation in 2001, to 2008. Methods: VKDB was listed with other rare conditions on the card sent monthly to registered specialist paediatricians by the New Zealand Paediatric Surveillance Unit with a request to indicate whether or not a case had been seen in the previous month. Those notifying a case were sent a two‐page questionnaire. The main outcome measures were incidence of VKDB of early (first day of life), classic (days 2–7) and late‐onset (day 8 to 6 months) type; related morbidity and mortality; receipt of vitamin K; and predisposing factors. Results: Response rate of return of surveillance cards was high, averaging 94.5%. There were 35 notifications of which 23 were valid cases. Seventeen cases met criteria for confirmed VKDB, two for ‘probable’ and four for ‘possible’. There were eight confirmed classic cases with an overall incidence of 1.24 (95% confidence interval 0.54–2.45) per 100 000 births; none had received vitamin K prophylaxis, seven were fully breastfed and all fully recovered. There were nine confirmed late‐onset cases with an overall incidence of 1.40 (95% confidence interval 0.64–2.65) per 100 000 births; eight had received no vitamin K, eight were fully breastfed, six had liver disease, four suffered an intracranial haemorrhage and one died. Conclusions: In New Zealand, VKDB is virtually confined to fully breastfed infants not given vitamin K at birth. Late‐onset cases were frequently associated with liver disease.     

Neonatal resuscitation educational experience of staff in New South Wales and Australian Capital Territory hospitals

OBJECTIVE: There is international recognition that health personnel involved in deliveries should be adequately trained in neonatal resuscitation. A survey was carried out in New South Wales (NSW) and the Australian Capital Territory (ACT) to ascertain the type, frequency and availability of training in neonatal resuscitation to staff who may need to resuscitate an infant at birth. The survey included a self-perception rating of confidence and competence in neonatal resuscitation. METHODS: Questionnaires were sent to 117 hospitals carrying out deliveries in NSW and ACT. Questionnaires were distributed to staff members who may be present at a delivery in a designated 24-h period. RESULTS: In total, 1457 questionnaires from 101 hospitals were returned and analysed. Overall response rate was 86.3% with 96.1% able to be assigned to tertiary, urban non-tertiary or rural areas. Eighty-five per cent of tertiary respondents had a training programme available to them compared with 59% of urban non-tertiary staff and 31% of rural practitioners. Approximately one-third of respondents in rural and urban non-tertiary units had either never been trained or had training more than 2 years before the survey. In rural areas more than 25% staff were not confident in their resuscitation skills and only 9% felt very competent. CONCLUSION: Three-quarters of all births in NSW and ACT take place in rural or urban non-tertiary hospitals where one-third of health personnel are inadequately trained in neonatal resuscitation and many do not feel confident in their skills. Effective neonatal resuscitation training for these areas is urgently required.     

A quality audit of the service delivered by the NSW Neonatal and Paediatric Transport Service

Aim:   To discover areas of NSW Neonatal and Paediatric Transport Service's (NETS) work with which the parents, referring and receiving doctors are dissatisfied and respond to them.
Methods:   An anonymous survey of referring doctors, parents of patients transported by NETS and receiving hospital doctors between July and December 2005.
Results:   Referring doctors: Fifty-seven per cent of the 288 (30% response rate) doctors who responded were paediatricians and 43% worked in rural settings. Over 90% responded positively about communication with the NETS team at referral and retrieval. Useful feedback included the need to be more time efficient in phone communication and during stabilisation of the child and to improve feedback about management and patient outcomes. Parents: Forty-seven per cent of 152 responses (15% response rate) came from rural families. The majority (>98%) of parents felt that the NETS team were helpful and supportive of them. Parents reported being able to travel with their child 60% of the time and of those who could not, 95% could explain why. Receiving doctors: Ninety-three per cent of 218 responses (42% response rate) thought that the referral was appropriate, that the NETS teams carried out their advice correctly (98%) and that the child's needs were reported accurately by the team (90%). In a minority of retrievals important concerns were raised about ventilation, sedation, patient assessment and management.
Conclusion:   Most retrievals happen in a way that referring consultants, parents and receiving consultants find appropriate. Important suggestions for improvement in service delivery and some areas of risk to patient safety have been identified. Processes for overcoming these situations are being developed and implemented.     

A clinical audit of cotside blood glucose measurement in the detection of neonatal hypoglycaemia

An evaluation of the use of cotside blood glucose measurement by BM Reflolux was undertaken as part of a unit audit programme. During the study period, 383 paired samples were obtained for both cotside and laboratory analysis. There were 328 results from the cotside which were less than 4 mmol/L. Cotside measurements consistently underestimated laboratory measurements but the differences were not related to age, gestation, weight or haematocrit. The difference between cotside measurements and laboratory results was greater at lower blood glucose values. Confidence and prediction intervals of blood glucose values from cotside measurement suggest that this technique is not reliable for the diagnosis of hypoglycaemia in the newborn. Indiscriminate and uncontrolled use of cotside glucose monitoring should not be relied upon for clinical management.