Requirement of c-jun for testosterone-induced sensitization to N-(4-hydroxyphenyl)retinamide-induced apoptosis

Androgen stimulation strongly affects the sensitivity to anticancer drug-induced apoptosis in prostate cancer cells. We investigated the influence of androgen stimulation with testosterone on N-(4-hydroxyphenyl)retinamide (4-HPR)-induced apoptosis in the androgen-sensitive prostate cancer cell line LNCaP. Overexpression of a dominant negative form of mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase 7, a specific kinase of c-jun NH(2)-terminal kinase (JNK), significantly inhibited 4-HPR-induced JNK activation and apoptosis and canceled the hormone-dependent sensitization. Testosterone activated extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), activating protein-1, subsequently increased the expression of c-jun. In addition, testosterone significantly enhanced in vivo phosphorylation of c-jun by 4-HPR as well as JNK activation. Transfection with an antisense oligonucleotide of c-jun blocked 4-HPR-induced apoptosis and the testosterone-induced sensitization, suggesting a major contribution of the JNK/c-jun mediated pathway in androgen-dependent sensitization. Interestingly, inhibition of testosterone-induced activation by PD98059 also canceled an upregulation of c-jun and increased apoptosis. These results suggested that modulation of JNK activation and expression of c-jun through ERK might have been essentially involved in androgen-mediated sensitization to 4-HPR-induced apoptosis in prostate cancer cells.     

Cyclosporin A enhances the apoptotic effects of N-(4-hydroxyphenyl)retinamide in breast cancer cells

4HPR, an analogue of ATRA, effectively induces growth inhibition and apoptosis in breast cancer cell lines and animal models but is ineffective against advanced human breast tumors. Different compounds, including tamoxifen, are currently being tested to increase 4HPR efficacy in the clinic. Here, we report that cyclosporin A selectively increases the ability of 4HPR, but not ATRA, to induce growth inhibition and apoptosis in ER(+) and ER(-) breast cancer cell lines. Increased apoptosis by the 4HPR and cyclosporin A combination was correlated with increased production of the free radical nitric oxide. Thus, the 4HPR and cyclosporin A combination may potentially be a novel therapeutic modality against breast tumors.     

Implication of mitochondria-derived ROS and cardiolipin peroxidation in N-(4-hydroxyphenyl)retinamide-induced apoptosis

We have studied the effect of N-(4-hydroxyphenyl)retinamide on either malignant human leukaemia cells or normal cells and investigated its mechanism of action. We demonstrate that 4HPR induces reactive oxygen species increase on mitochondria at a target between mitochondrial respiratory chain complex I and II. Such oxidative stress causes cardiolipin peroxidation which in turn allows cytochrome c release to cytosol, caspase-3 activation and therefore apoptotic consumption. Moreover, this apoptotic pathway seems to be bcl-2/bax independent and count only on malignant cells but not normal nor activated lymphocytes.     

Role of mitogen-activated protein kinases in phenethyl isothiocyanate-induced apoptosis in human prostate cancer cells

The present study was undertaken to examine the role of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) in apoptosis induction by phenethyl isothiocyanate (PEITC), a cruciferous vegetable-derived cancer chemopreventive agent, with DU145 and LNCaP human prostate cancer cells as a model. The MAPK family of serine/threonine kinases, including extracellular signal-regulated kinase1/2 (ERK1/2), c-jun N-terminal kinase1/2/3 (JNK1/2/3), and p38 MAPK play an important role in cell proliferation and apoptosis in response to different stimuli. Exposure of DU145 and LNCaP cells to growth suppressive concentrations of PEITC resulted in activation of ERK1/2 and JNKs, but not p38 MAPK, in both cell lines. In DU145 cells, the apoptosis induction by PEITC was statistically significantly attenuated by pharmacological inhibition of JNKs with SP600125. Adenovirus-mediated overexpression of Flag-tagged JNK binding domain (JBD) of JNK-interacting protein-1 (JIP-1), an inhibitor of JNK, also inhibited PEITC-induced apoptosis in DU145 cells. On the other hand, inhibition of ERK1/2 activation with MEK1 inhibitor PD98059 failed to offer protection against PEITC-induced apoptosis in DU145 cells. In LNCaP cells, the PEITC-induced cell death was not affected by either pretreatment with PD98059 or SP600125 or overexpression of JBD of JIP-1. These results indicate that involvement of MAPKs in apoptosis induction by PEITC in human prostate cancer cells is cell line-specific.     

抑制核转录因子活化逆转胃癌细胞株耐药性研究

目的　探讨核转录因子（ＮＦ-κＢ）的活化在胃癌细胞株耐药性机制中的作用。方法　用阿霉素（ＡＤＭ）诱导培养胃癌细胞耐药亚株ＳＧＣ７９０１／ＡＤＭ,ＭＴＴ法检测ＡＤＭ对胃癌细胞株的细胞毒作用,流式细胞仪检测胃癌细胞株凋亡率的变化,免疫细胞化学染色法检测胃癌细胞株ＮＦ κＢ的活化情况。吡咯烷二硫代氨基甲酸脂（ＰＴＤＣ）抑制ＮＦ-κＢ活化,并检测ＡＤＭ对胃癌细胞株的细胞毒作用。结果　ＳＧＣ７９０１／ＡＤＭ的ＩＣ_５０为２.６３μｇ／ｍｌ,ＳＧＣ７９０１的ＩＣ_５０为０.２９μｇ／ｍｌ,ＳＧＣ７９０１／ＡＤＭ相对耐药度较亲本细胞提高了８.９倍。４８ｈ内ＳＧＣ７９０１和ＳＧＣ７９０１／ＡＤＭ胃癌细胞株发生的凋亡率随ＡＤＭ浓度增加而升高,随着作用时间延长而升高;１０μｇ／ｍｌＡＤＭ分别作用４８ｈ时ＳＧＣ７９０１和ＳＧＣ７９０１／ＡＤＭ胃癌细胞株发生的凋亡率为（４８.５３±１.０２）％和（１７.５３±１.０２）％。免疫细胞化学染色显示ＡＤＭ作用ＳＧＣ７９０１／ＡＤＭ胃癌细胞９ｈ后可检测到ＮＦ-κＢ核移位,最高达到６５％;ＡＤＭ作用ＳＧＣ７９０１胃癌细胞株１８ｈ后可检测到少量ＮＦ-κＢ核移位;所有的细胞株ＮＦ-κＢ核移位均于２４ｈ后减弱;ＰＴＤＣ抑制核转录因子活化后ＡＤＭ细胞毒效应增强（Ｐ＜０.０５）。结论　ＮＦ-κＢ活化所导致的胃癌细胞株凋亡率下降在胃癌细胞株耐药性机制中发挥一定作用,抑制ＮＦ-κＢ活化后可以逆转胃癌细胞株对ＡＤＭ耐药性。     

Antimalarial drug mefloquine inhibits nuclear factor kappa B signaling and induces apoptosis in colorectal cancer cells

Nuclear factor kappa B (NF‐κB) signaling pathway is activated in many colorectal cancer (CRC) cells and in the tumor microenvironment, which plays a critical role in cancer initiation, development, and response to therapies. In the present study, we found that the widely used antimalarial drug mefloquine was a NF‐κB inhibitor that blocked the activation of IκBα kinase, leading to reduction of IκBα degradation, decrease of p65 phosphorylation, and suppressed expression of NF‐κB target genes in CRC cells. We also found that mefloquine induced growth arrest and apoptosis of CRC cells harboring phosphorylated p65 in culture and in mice. Furthermore, expression of constitutive active IKKβ kinase significantly attenuated the cytotoxic effect of the compound. These results showed that mefloquine could exert antitumor action through inhibiting the NF‐κB signaling pathway, and indicated that the antimalarial drug might be repurposed for anti‐CRC therapy in the clinic as a single agent or in combination with other anticancer drugs.     

NF-κB抑制剂二硫代氨基甲酸吡咯烷提高卵巢癌细胞顺铂化疗的敏感性

目的:探讨核因子κB(nuclear factor kappa B, NF-κB)抑制剂二硫代氨基甲酸吡咯烷(pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate,PDTC)提高人卵巢癌SKOV-3细胞对顺铂(cisplatin)化疗敏感性的作用及其可能的机制.方法:用不同浓度PDTC联合顺铂在不同时间作用于卵巢癌SKOV-3细胞,MTT法观察药物作用对细胞生长的抑制,Western Blotting分析胞质内NF-κB 抑制蛋白α(inhibitor of NF-κB ,I-κBα)、胞核P65蛋白的表达;流式细胞术检测细胞凋亡.结果:PDTC(10～40 μmol/L)或顺铂(0.1～100 μg/ml )均明显抑制SKOV-3细胞的生长(P<0.05或P<0.01),并引起细胞的凋亡;小剂量PDTC(2.5、5 μmol/L)和顺铂(0.01 μg/ml)联合应用与单用顺铂比较,可明显增加细胞生长抑制率和细胞凋亡率(均P<0.05).单用顺铂组与对照组比较,胞质I-κBα蛋白减少而胞核P65蛋白增多,联合使用PDTC可逆转此现象.结论:小剂量PDTC可增强卵巢癌细胞对顺铂的敏感性,这一作用可能与PDTC增加I-κBα蛋白的表达而抑制P65蛋白进入核内有关.     

核因子-κＢ在三阴性乳腺癌中的表达及其意义

目的　探讨核因子-κＢ（ＮＦ-κＢ）在三阴性乳腺癌组织中的表达及其与临床病理特征和预后的关系。方法　应用免疫组化法ＰＶ-６０００二步法检测１３７例三阴性乳腺癌和１３２例非三阴性乳腺癌患者癌组织ＮＦ-κＢ的表达,分析其与临床病理特征和预后之间的关系。结果　１３７例三阴性乳腺癌组织中的ＮＦ-κＢ阳性表达率为７３.７％（１０１／１３７）,明显高于非三阴性乳腺癌的４６.２％（６１／１３２）,差异有统计学意义（Ｐ＝０.０００）。在１３７例三阴性乳腺癌中,ＮＦ-κＢ表达与ＶＥＧＦ、ｐ５３、组织分级、淋巴结转移、５年无病生存率和５年总生存率有关（Ｐ＜０.０５）;而在１３２例非三阴性乳腺癌中,ＮＦ-κＢ表达仅与ＶＥＧＦ、淋巴结转移、５年无病生存率相关（Ｐ＜０.０5）。结论　ＮＦ-κＢ在三阴性乳腺癌中表达率高,并可作为三阴性乳腺癌的预后指标。     

Cross‐talk of alpha tocopherol‐associated protein and JNK controls the oxidative stress‐induced apoptosis in prostate cancer cells

Excess intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) beyond a threshold can induce apoptosis in cancer cells. However, the signal pathways that can augment the proapoptotic function of ROS remain largely unknown. We previously identified a tumor suppressor, alpha‐tocopherol‐associated protein (TAP), yet little is known regarding the role of TAP in the apoptotic signaling in prostate cancer. Interestingly, we recently found that exposure of prostate cancer cells to hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) resulted in induced apoptosis as well as increased expression of TAP. Small interfering RNA (siRNA) mediated silencing of endogenous TAP expression conferred effective protection from H₂O₂‐induced apoptosis. Further mechanistic study showed exposure of prostate cancer cells to H₂O₂ resulted in increased phosphorylation of both JNK and c‐Jun, and TAP siRNA effectively decreased H₂O₂‐induced JNK and c‐Jun phosphorylation. Immunoprecipitation experiments revealed that JNK physically associates with TAP. Furthermore, signaling downstream of JNK to the AP‐1 complex and BH‐3‐only subfamily were found to be regulated on changing the TAP expression status. TAP could also promote the oxidative stress‐induced apoptosis effect of docetaxel. In the mice xenograft model, H₂O₂ treatment induced TAP expression, JNK phosphorylation and apoptosis of prostate cancer. Recombinant adeno‐associated virus 2 (rAAV2)‐TAP injection significantly sensitizes this H₂O₂ proapoptotic effect. Together, we have identified a novel functional mechanism that the cross‐talk of TAP‐JNK is involved in oxidative stress‐induced apoptosis in prostate cancer cells. Disrupting the redox balance of cancer cells by this signaling may enable therapeutic selectivity and provide benefit to overcome the drug resistance of prostate cancer.     

N-(4-羧基苯)钐维甲酰胺诱导HL-60细胞凋亡及其分子机制研究

目的 探讨N-（4-羧基苯）钐维甲酰胺对人早幼粒白血病细胞株HL-60细胞的诱导凋亡及其作用机制。方法 通过光镜，流式细胞仪，琼脂糖凝胶电泳，RT-PCR等观察并分析N-（4-羧基苯）钐维甲酰胺对HL-60细胞的作用。结果 N-（4-羧基苯）钐维甲酰胺能诱导HL-60细胞凋亡，并使细胞bcl-2表达下降。结论 N-（4-羧基苯）钐维甲酰胺引起的HL-60细胞凋亡的分子机制可能是通过下调bcl-2的表达而实现的。     

The molecular mechanism of sensitization to Fas-mediated apoptosis by 2-methoxyestradiol in PC3 prostate cancer cells

It is widely known that death receptor Fas-dependent apoptotic signals are associated with development of prostate cancer, but the key pathways involved in sensitivity to the apoptosis remain unclear. Here we investigated the molecular mechanism by which 2-methoxyestradiol (2-ME) effectively sensitizes a human prostate cancer cell line, PC3, to Fas-mediated apoptosis. 2-ME significantly inhibited nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-kappaB) activation and downregulated Fas-associated death domain (FADD) protein interluekin-1beta-converting enzyme inhibitory protein (FLIP). Overexpression of the dominant negative mutant form of IkappaBalpha (d/n IkappaBalpha) or treatment with Ikappa kinase-specific inhibitor Bay117082 gave the same results, although the sensitizing effect was not as pronounced. A selective inhibitor of Akt phosphorylation, LY294002, accelerated formation of the death-inducing signaling complex (DISC) not only by FLIP reduction but also by enhancement of recruitment of the FADD to Fas, thereby sensitizing PC3 cells to apoptosis similar to the case with 2-ME stimulation. Moreover, we found that inhibition of 2-ME-induced extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) activation by the upstream kinase inhibitor PD98059 significantly enhanced 2-ME-mediated suppression of Akt activation, resulting in much greater sensitization to apoptosis. Taken together, the present findings indicate that 2-ME suppresses NF-kappaB/FLIP signaling and enhances DISC formation through inhibition of Akt, and that PC3 cells thereby are being sensitized to Fas-mediated apoptosis and by a process closely associated with ERK.     

Expression of the human cachexia-associated protein (HCAP) in prostate cancer and in a prostate cancer animal model of cachexia

Prostate cancer (CaP) patients with disseminated disease often suffer from severe cachexia, which contributes to mortality in advanced cancer. Human cachexia-associated protein (HCAP) was recently identified from a breast cancer library based on the available 20-amino acid sequence of proteolysis-inducing factor (PIF), which is a highly active cachectic factor isolated from mouse colon adenocarcinoma MAC16. Herein, we investigated the expression of HCAP in CaP and its potential involvement in CaP-associated cachexia. HCAP mRNA was detected in CaP cell lines, in primary CaP tissues and in its osseous metastases. In situ hybridization showed HCAP mRNA to be localized only in the epithelial cells in CaP tissues, in the metastatic foci in bone, liver and lymph node, but not in the stromal cells or in normal prostate tissues. HCAP protein was detected in 9 of 14 CaP metastases but not in normal prostate tissues from cadaveric donors or patients with organ-confined tumors. Our Western blot analysis revealed that HCAP was present in 9 of 19 urine specimens from cachectic CaP patients but not in 19 urine samples of noncachectic patients. HCAP mRNA and protein were also detected in LuCaP 35 and PC-3M xenografts from our cachectic animal models. Our results demonstrated that human CaP cells express HCAP and the expression of HCAP is associated with the progression of CaP and the development of CaP cachexia.     

人结肠癌组织中Smad4与蛋白激酶B表达水平相关性及与临床病理的关系研究

目的:探讨人结肠癌组织中Smad4的表达与蛋白激酶B激活的关系。方法:收集我院结肠癌术后的53例肿瘤组织标本,采用免疫组化染色和评分分析Smad4的表达与磷酸化蛋白激酶B的关系,并分析Smad4不同表达状态下肿瘤临床病理特征的差异。结果:人结肠癌组织Smad4阴性组中磷酸化蛋白激酶B的表达明显高于Smad4阳性组,差异具有统计学显著性。Smad4表达与肿瘤分级相关,低分化的肿瘤中Smad4低表达的比例高于分化较好的肿瘤。结论:Smad4在结肠癌中缺失提示肿瘤恶性程度高;Smad4表达下降可能通过激活蛋白激酶B通路促进结肠癌的进展。     

Procyanidin B2 3,3″‐di‐O‐gallate induces oxidative stress‐mediated cell death in prostate cancer cells via inhibiting MAP kinase phosphatase activity and activating ERK1/2 and AMPK

Neoplastic cells exhibit higher oxidative stress compared to normal cells; however, antioxidants based clinical trials have mostly failed. Another attractive therapeutic approach is to further increase the oxidative stress in cancer cells leading to cell death. Herein, we show that Procyanidin B2 3,3″‐di‐O‐gallate (B2G2), the most active constituent of grape seed extract, treatment causes cell death in human prostate cancer (PCa) cells (LNCaP and 22Rv1) via increasing the reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation. Mechanistically, B2G2 treatment decreased the mitochondrial electron transport chain complex III activity leading to enhanced mitochondrial superoxide generation and decreased ATP production in LNCaP cells. Additional molecular studies revealed that B2G2‐induced cell death was mediated mainly through ROS‐induced sustained activation of ERK1/2, which was due to inhibition of MAP kinase phosphatase (MKP) activity as over‐expression of MKP3 in LNCaP cells conferred significant protection against B2G2‐induced cell death. Along with ERK1/2, AMP‐activated protein kinase α (AMPKα) was also activated by B2G2 treatment, and pre‐treatment with AMPKα inhibitor compound C significantly reversed the cytotoxic effects of B2G2 in LNCaP cells. Furthermore, pre‐treatment of MKP3 over‐expressing LNCaP cells with compound C further reduced the B2G2‐induced cell death, suggesting the involvement of AMPKα along with MKP3 and ERK1/2 in the biological effects of B2G2. Together, these results for the first time identified that oxidative stress and MKP3 inhibition play a critical role in B2G2‐induced cell death in PCa cells through sustained activation of both ERK1/2 and AMPKα. These results offer a unique opportunity to control this deadly malignancy through B2G2 use.     

N-(4-hydroxyphenyl)retinamide inhibits invasion, suppresses osteoclastogenesis, and potentiates apoptosis through down-regulation of I(kappa)B(alpha) kinase and nuclear factor-kappaB-regulated gene products

N-(4-hydroxyphenyl) retinamide [4-HPR], a synthetic retinoid, has been shown to inhibit tumor cell growth, invasion, and metastasis by a mechanism that is not fully understood. Because the nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-kappaB) has also been shown to regulate proliferation, invasion, and metastasis of tumor cells, we postulated that 4-HPR modulates the activity of NF-kappaB. To test this postulate, we examined the effect of this retinoid on NF-kappaB and NF-kappaB-regulated gene products. We found that 4-HPR potentiated the apoptosis induced by tumor necrosis factor (TNF) and chemotherapeutic agents, suppressed TNF-induced invasion, and inhibited RANKL-induced osteoclastogenesis, all of which are known to require NF-kappaB activation. We found that 4-HPR suppressed both inducible and constitutive NF-kappaB activation without interfering with the direct DNA binding of NF-kappaB. 4-HPR was found to be synergistic with Velcade, a proteasome inhibitor. Further studies showed that 4-HPR blocked the phosphorylation and degradation of IkappaBalpha through the inhibition of activation of IkappaBalpha kinase (IKK), and this led to suppression of the phosphorylation and nuclear translocation of p65. 4-HPR also inhibited TNF-induced Akt activation linked with IKK activation. NF-kappaB-dependent reporter gene expression was also suppressed by 4-HPR, as was NF-kappaB reporter activity induced by TNFR1, TRADD, TRAF2, NIK, and IKK but not that induced by p65 transfection. The expression of NF-kappaB-regulated gene products involved in antiapoptosis (IAP1, Bfl-1/A1, Bcl-2, cFLIP, and TRAF1), proliferation (cyclin D1 and c-Myc), and angiogenesis (vascular endothelial growth factor, cyclooxygenase-2, and matrix metalloproteinase-9) were also down-regulated by 4-HPR. This correlated with potentiation of apoptosis induced by TNF and chemotherapeutic agents.