应用抗菌素骨水泥旷置分期翻修治疗人工髋关节置换术后感染

目的 评估应用抗菌素骨水泥旷置分期翻修（TSEA）治疗髋关节置换术后感染的疗效。方法 1998年1月～2005年1月，采用TSEA治疗8例髋关节置换术后感染患者，所有患者均行细菌培养检查，一期清创假体取出滴注2例，清创后假体取出加PR-40抗菌素骨水泥支架旷置6例；二期翻修采用非骨水泥假体3例，骨水泥型假体3例，混合髋2例；手术前后髋关节功能通过Harris评分评估。结果 4例细菌培养为金黄色葡萄球菌，3例为混合感染，1例细菌培养阴性。一期处理后所有伤口均愈合，一、二期平均间隔5．5个月。术后平均3年4个月随访时髋关节Harris评分由术前31．1分提高至62．9分。结论 TSEA是治疗髋关节置换术后感染非常有效的方法，其中碘氟浸泡髓腔和抗菌素骨水泥旷置是主要手段。骨水泥复合万古霉素对耐受甲氧西林金黄色球菌人工关节感染治疗有效。     

髋关节置换术后迟发性感染的诊断与治疗

目的探讨髋关节置换术后迟发性感染的诊断和治疗方法。方法对1998年3月至2004年4月收治的11例髋关节置换术后迟发性感染病例进行回顾性分析。男4例,女7例;年龄49￣81岁,平均66岁。11例患者均有疼痛症状,感染距初次手术的时间9￣96个月,平均25.5个月。5例有窦道,8例C反应蛋白增高,9例血沉增快,10例X线片有包括骨溶解、假体松动、新骨形成等阳性表现;行窦道造影检查2例,均发现窦道的近端与关节假体相通。关节穿刺1例,细菌培养结果阴性,术中取标本行细菌培养仍为阴性;同位素99mTc骨扫描1例,发现围绕假体周围均匀的放射性核素浓聚;细菌培养阳性9例,阴性2例。一期翻修8例,其中普通骨水泥固定1例,抗生素骨水泥固定7例;二期翻修3例,在取出假体、彻底清创后,分别放置了三种临时假体间隔器(抗生素骨水泥团、庆大霉素链珠、多孔可灌注Spacer各1例),感染控制后,安放翻修假体,抗生素骨水泥固定。结果术中股骨干骨折1例,无关节脱位、神经血管损伤、静脉血栓等并发症发生。11例患者的感染都得到控制,随访8～72个月,平均29.3个月,感染未见复发。结论髋关节置换术后迟发性感染尚无100%的特异性检查,需要对患者的病史、体征及实验室检查、影像学检查、病原学以及病理学检查结果进行综合分析,才能作出正确的诊断;根据个体情况,选择相应的手术方式是治疗成功的关键。     

人工髋关节置换术后感染的外科治疗

目的探讨人工髋关节置换术后感染窦道形成的外科治疗方法。方法自1999年6月至2005年1月,共收治了人工髋关节置换术后感染窦道形成者7例,其中男4例,女3例;年龄34~71岁,平均55.4岁。根据Fitizger-ald全髋关节置换术后感染分期,2例为期感染,4例为期感染,1例为期感染。所有病例均采用一期清创,假体取出,抗生素骨水泥旷置,二期行清创,髋关节再次置换术。结果平均随访49.3个月(6~66个月),6例功能恢复良好,Harris评分平均74.6分。1例因术后脱位,切开复位后再次感染,二次行清创,假体取出,旷置术,术后15个月后再次清创,行全髋置换。结论人工髋关节置换术后感染窦道形成者,经严格的一期清创后,二期清创、关节置换,可获得满意疗效。     

初次髋关节置换术后早期感染的手术治疗体会

目的探讨初次人工髋关节置换术后假体周围早期感染的手术治疗经验及其效果。方法本组9例初次人工髋关节置换术后假体周围早期感染,关节穿刺做为主要诊疗手段。确定感染的患者尽快根据药敏结果抗生素治疗。抗生素治疗一周效果不佳者、局部脓肿和窦道形成者及穿刺抽出脓液者尽快手术。感染4周内者以抗生素＋清创＋闭式灌洗术式为主,超过4周者行一期翻修。1例清创失败者取出假体旷置后二期翻修。所有患者于术后1、3、6、12个月和以后每年复诊,随访时间2452个月,平均37个月。内容包括Harris髋关节功能评分、X线评估、血沉和CRP的复查。结果 9例患者均恢复良好,局部症状消失。体温、C反应蛋白、血沉及周围血象均恢复正常,关节功能得到恢复。末次随访时均未见感染复发,髋关节Harris评分由术前平均44.6分（2466分）提高到术后的平均85.3分（7194分）。结论初次人工髋关节置换术后假体周围早期感染国内外文献报告均较少,仅能得出较初步的经验。术前关节腔穿刺及术中菌培养对诊断及治疗极有帮助。在对患者的临床表现和各项检查结果进行综合评价的基础上,如有把握清创彻底,抗生素治疗得当,可考虑先行一期保留假体清创或取出假体翻修手术。     

采用抗生素骨水泥假体二期翻修治疗人工髋关节感染

目的探讨采用抗生素骨水泥假体二期翻修治疗人工髋关节感染的疗效。方法自1999年6月至2004年10月,14例初次髋关节置换术后感染患者行二期手术。术前Harris评分平均23分。一期手术中将取出的假体彻底清洗,骨水泥垫临时旷置,关节内引流管引流,术后静脉输入抗生素3周后,改为口服抗生素1个月。二期手术于6个月后进行,植入带抗生素骨水泥型假体。结果14例患者均获得随访,随访时间7～26个月,平均18个月。14例患者术后均无感染复发。术后Harris评分平均70分。结论彻底清创、足够间隔期以及二期手术采用抗生素骨水泥假体是有效控制感染复发的有效措施。     

人工髋关节感染翻修的探讨

[目的]分析人工髋关节感染采用一期或二期翻修治疗的选择及疗效。[方法]自2006年1月²010年1月本院收治的15例人工髋关节置换术后感染患者中,采用一期翻修4例(4髋);二期翻修术治疗11例(11髋)。一期翻修组,彻底清创,取出感染假体,置入含万古霉素骨水泥型假体。二期翻修组,一期手术彻底清创,取出感染假体,置入含有万古霉素骨水泥占位器,32010年1月本院收治的15例人工髋关节置换术后感染患者中,采用一期翻修4例(4髋);二期翻修术治疗11例(11髋)。一期翻修组,彻底清创,取出感染假体,置入含万古霉素骨水泥型假体。二期翻修组,一期手术彻底清创,取出感染假体,置入含有万古霉素骨水泥占位器,3⁶个月后二期手术,再次清创,取出骨水泥占位器后,置入骨水泥型或非骨水泥型假体。术后随访246个月后二期手术,再次清创,取出骨水泥占位器后,置入骨水泥型或非骨水泥型假体。术后随访24⁵6个月,平均31个月。[结果]15例患者均未发现感染复发,Harris评分术前一期翻修组为40.5分,翻修后为88.2分(8556个月,平均31个月。[结果]15例患者均未发现感染复发,Harris评分术前一期翻修组为40.5分,翻修后为88.2分(85⁹5分);二期翻修组术前为46.3分(2295分);二期翻修组术前为46.3分(22⁵5分),二期翻修后为87.1分(8055分),二期翻修后为87.1分(80⁹4分)。[结论]根据患者全身情况、实验室检查以及髋部骨质和软组织情况等综合因素,一期翻修术对于感染程度轻,无窦道形成的患者,临床效果满意。二期翻修则适用于感染程度严重,有窦道形成,关节腔内大量脓液的病例。     

变生物固定为抗生素骨水泥固定一期翻修术治疗全髋关节置换术后急性感染

目的探讨变生物固定为抗生素骨水泥固定一期翻修术治疗全髋关节置换术后急性感染的效果。方法对30例全髋关节置换术后感染采用清创、假体取出后一期变生物固定为抗生素骨水泥固定行翻修治疗。结果30例均获随访24～30个月，平均28个月。感染均未复发，血沉、C反应蛋白及血常规检查正常，局部软组织无肿胀和压痛，关节功能得到恢复。患者均不需要扶拐行走，能上下楼梯，生活自理。术后24个月髋关节功能Harris评分70～94分，平均86．2分；较术前明显提高，差异有统计学意义（t=4．311，P=0．006）。结论全髋关节置换术后急性感染一旦明确诊断，采用彻底清创、变生物固定为抗生素骨水泥固定的一期翻修术可取得良好的临床疗效，避免了二次翻修手术。     

定制抗生素骨水泥临时假体在人工髋关节置换术后感染二期翻修中的应用

目的报道应用定制抗生素骨水泥临时假体治疗人工髋关节置换术后感染的手术疗效。方法16例取出人工髋关节假体彻底清创后,放置形状及大小与髋臼及股骨髓腔大小相匹配的抗生素骨水泥临时假体,术后定期复查C反应蛋白和血沉,待结果正常后二期行人工髋关节翻修术。结果抗生素骨水泥临时假体充填后,患者伤口均愈合,1~2周后可扶双拐不负重活动,术后无一例发生骨水泥临时假体断裂及脱位,双下肢长度基本对称,二期翻修时抗生素骨水泥假体均可顺利取出。术后人工关节无一例感染复发、松动及下沉,Harris评分平均81分。结论定制抗生素骨水泥临时假体对感染的人工髋关节进行二期翻修,方法可靠,术后复发率低,能有效地克服髋周软组织挛缩,最大限度地保留下肢功能。     

全髋关节置换术后感染的二期翻修术

目的全髋关节置换术后感染是全髋关节置换的最严重并发症,给后期的进一步治疗造成许多困难。本文着重讨论全髋关节置换术后感染的二期翻修方法。方法自1998年9月～2000年3月,共治疗全髋术后感染病例7例,其中男2例,女5例;年龄42～68岁,平均51.5岁。早期感染2例,晚期感染4例和急性血源性感染1例。3例致病菌为金黄色葡萄球菌,1例为产碱假单胞菌,3例细菌培养阴性。所有病例都采用清创、假体取出后二期翻修的治疗方法。结果7例病例在初次清创假体取出,含庆大霉素、万古霉素抗生素的骨水泥间隔物置入后,伤口均Ⅰ期愈合。二期手术间隔时间平均11.7个月,翻修术后随访平均7.2个月,未出现感染征象。结论全髋关节置换术后感染二期翻修具有安全系数高,感染容易控制的优点,近期临床疗效满意。     

人工髋关节置换术后感染的Ⅱ期翻修手术治疗

目的:探讨Ⅱ期翻修手术治疗在全髋关节置换术后感染的疗效和临床体会,以及该技术的安全性和有效性。方法:2006年1月至2009年3月,采用Ⅱ期翻修手术治疗17例(17髋)髋关节疾患,男7例,女10例;年龄43～75岁,平均58.5岁。17例患髋均有不同程度疼痛;关节液或假体周围组织细菌培养,11例阳性,6例阴性;术中所有患者假体周围组织病理检查发现急性炎症;8例出现与假体相通的窦道;15例血沉增快,15例C反应蛋白增高;17例X线片有骨融解、假体松动及骨膜反应等表现。所有病例采用Ⅱ期翻修手术治疗,Ⅰ期手术彻底清创,取出假体,以含万古霉素的骨水泥假体临时旷置,术后静脉输入抗生素4周后,改为口服抗生素6周。术后定期复查血沉和C反应蛋白,待结果正常后再Ⅱ期行人工髋关节翻修术。结合手术前后患者髋关节Harris评分,对人工髋关节置换术后感染的Ⅱ期翻修手术治疗进行分析。结果:所有患者获随访,时间12～35个月,平均19.5个月,术后X线片显示关节假体位置正确。Harris髋关节评分从术前平均(39.3±5.6)分提高到末次随访的平均(84.4±10.3)分(t=15.86,P0.01)。结论:Ⅱ期翻修手术治疗人工髋关节置换术后感染,具有疗效良好、安全可靠等优点,其为人工髋关节置换术后感染的治疗提供一种可靠的选择。     

Vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction during major abdominal surgery

Background : We investigated the vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction (MT) with hypotension due to prostacyclin (PGI₂) release in patients undergoing abdominal surgery with a combined general and epidural anesthesia. Methods : In a prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled study we administered 400 mg ibuprofen (i.v.) in 42 patients scheduled for abdominal surgery. General anesthesia was combined with epidural anesthesia (T4-L1). Before as well as 5, 15, 30, 45, and 90 min after MT we recorded plasma osmolality, hemodynamics and measured 6-keto-PGFlα (stabile metabolite of PGI₂), TXB₂ (stabile metabolite of thromboxane A₂) active renin, and arginine vasopressin (AVP) plasma concentrations by radioimmunoassay. Catecholamine levels were assessed by high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) with electrochemical detection. Results : Following MT, arterial hypotension occurred along with a substantial PGI₂ release. This was completely abolished by ibuprofen administration. Although plasma levels of 6-keto-PGF_1α (1133 (708) vs. 60 (3) ng/L, median (median absolute deviation), P=0.0001, placebo vs. ibuprofen) remained significantly elevated, blood pressure was restored within 30 min after MT in the placebo group. At the same point in time plasma concentrations of TXB² (164 (87) vs. 58 (1) ng/L, P=0.0001), epinephrine (46 (33) vs. 14 (6) ng/L, P=0.001), AVP (41 ± (18) vs. 12 (7) ng/L, P=0.0004), and active renin (27 (12) vs. 12 (4) ng/L, P = 0.001) were significantly higher in placebo-treated patients. Conclusion : Under combined general and epidural anesthesia arterial hypotension following MT due to endogenous PGI₂ release is associated with enhanced release of AVP, active renin, epinephrine and thromboxane A₂, presumably contributing to hemodynamic stability within 30 min after MT.     

A Teaspoon Pump for Pumping Blood with High Hydraulic Efficiency and Low Hemolysis Potential

Abstract: Virtually all blood pumps contain some kind of rubbing, sliding, closely moving machinery surfaces that are exposed to the blood being pumped. These valves, internal bearings, magnetic bearing position sensors, and shaft seals cause most of the problems with blood pumps. The original teaspoon pump design prevented the rubbing, sliding machinery surfaces from contacting the blood. However, the hydraulic efficiency was low because the blood was able to "slip around" the rotating impeller so that the blood itself never rotated fast enough to develop adequate pressure. An improved teaspoon blood pump has been designed and tested and has shown acceptable hydraulic performance and low hemolysis potential. The new pump uses a nonrotating "swinging" hose as the pump impeller. The fluid enters the pump through the center of the swinging hose; therefore, there can be no fluid slip between the revolving blood and the revolving impeller. The new pump uses an impeller that is comparable to a flexible garden hose. If the free end of the hose were swung around in a circle like half of a jump rope, the fluid inside the hose would rotate and develop pressure even though the hose impeller itself did not "rotate"; therefore, no rotating shaft seal or internal bearings are required.     

A comparison of the inhibitory effects of four volatile anaesthetics on the metabolism of chlorzoxazone, a substrate for CYP2E1, in rabbits

Background: Halothane inhibits in vitro and in vivo activity of cytochrome P-450 (CYP) 2E1. There are several fluorinated volatile anaesthetics besides halothane, and most of them are defluorinated by CYP2E1. It is unclear whether other fluorinated anaesthetics inhibit the in vivo activity of CYP2E1.
Methods: We compared the inhibitory effects of therapeutic concentrations of four inhalational anaesthetics, halothane, enflurane, isoflurane, and sevoflurane, on chlorzoxazone metabolism in rabbits receiving artificial ventilation.
Results: All four inhalational anaesthetics decreased arterial blood pressure and increased plasma chlorzoxazone concentration. However, no significant differences in the plasma chlorzoxazone concentration were found between the four anaesthetics. The estimated chlorzoxazone clearance increased after beginning inhalation with all four agents, but no significant difference in clearance was noted between agents.
Conclusions: At therapeutic concentrations, the in vivo inhibitory effect on chlorzoxazone metabolism was similar for all four inhalational anaesthetics examined, even though their chemical characteristics and extent of hepatic metabolism differ considerably.     

Microspheres Based Detoxification System: A New Method in Convective Blood Purification

Abstract: A variety of protein-bound or hydrophobic substances, accumulating as a result of pathologic conditions such as exogenous or endogenous intoxications, are removed poorly by conventional detoxification methods because of low accessibility (hemodialysis), insufficient adsorption capabilities (hemosorption), low efficiency (peritoneal dialysis), or economic limitations (high-volume plasmapheresis). Combining advantages of existing methods with microspheric technology, a module-based system was designed. Major operating parameters of the latter can be modified to allow for adjustment to individual clinical situations. An extracorporeal blood circuit including a plasmafilter is combined with a secondary high-velocity plasma circuit driven by a centrifugal pump. Different microspheric adsorbers can be combined in one circuit or applied in sequence. Thus, a prolonged treatment can be tailored using specially designed selective adsorber materials. Comparing this system with existing methods (high-flux hemodialysis, molecular adsorbent recycling system), results from our in vitro studies and animal experiments demonstrate the superior efficiency of substance removal.     

Tissue perfusion in relation to cardiac output during continuous positive-pressure ventilation and administration of propranolol or verapamil

Background : Our objective was to determine whether administration of propranolol or verapamil modifies the hemodynamic adaptation to continuous positive-pressure ventilation (CPPV), in particular the regional distribution of cardiac output (CO).
Methods : General hemodynamics and regional blood flows assessed by microsphere technique (15 (μm) were recorded in 16 anesthetized pigs during spontaneous breathing (SB) and CPPV with 8 cm H₂O end-expiratory pressure (CPPV8) before and after intravenous administration of propranolol (0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.15 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8) or verapamil (0.1 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8).
Results : CPPV8 depressed CO by 25% without shifts in its relative distribution with the exception of a noteworthy increase in adrenal perfusion. Propranolol increased arterial blood pressure, and due to a fall in heart rate, CO dropped by 25%. The kidneys and, to a lesser extent, the splanchic region and central nervous system received increased fractions of the remaining CO at the expense of skeletal muscle flow. Similar patterns were seen during SB and CPPV8 such that the combination of propranolol and CPPV8 depressed CO by 50%. The circulatory effects of verapamil were less evident but myocardial perfusion tended to increase.
Conclusions : The combination of propranolol or verapamil with CPPV does not result in any specific hemodynamic interaction in anesthetized pigs, except that the combined effect of propranolol and CPPV may severely reduce CO.     

Bariatric Surgery in Some "Central and East-European (former Eastern bloc)"Countries - Current Status and Prediction for the Next Millennium

Background: Obesity is increasing globallly, including in the formerly "Eastern Bloc" countries. Methods: A survey was made of obesity and bariatric surgery. Results: In the 8 East and Central European countries studied, with total population 300 million, roughly 43% of the population was overweight (BMI 25-30), 23% obese (BMI > 30), with about 15 million people morbidly obese (BMI > 40). From 0-10 morbidly obese individuals/100,000/year undergo bariatric surgery. Conclusion: Most countries were found to provide inadequate treatment for obesity.The majority of the morbidly obese are not treated effectively. However, health-care awareness of obesity and bariatric surgeons are slowly increasing.     

Volatile anaesthetics reduce adhesion of blood platelets under low-flow conditions in the coronary system of isolated guinea pig hearts

Background : Inhibitory effects of volatile anaesthetics on platelet aggregation have been demonstrated in several studies. However, the influence of volatile anaesthetics on intracoronary platelet adhesion has not been elucidated so far.
Methods : Isolated hearts of guinea pigs were perfused with buffer in the absence or presence of volatile anaesthetics (0.5 and 1 MAC) at constant coronary flow rates of 5 ml/min for 25 min, then 1 ml/min for 30 min and again 5 ml/min for 10 min. Before, during and after low-flow perfusion, a bolus of human platelets was applied into the coronary system. To simulate thrombogenic conditions, 0.3 U/ml human thrombin was infused during low-flow perfusion and reperfusion. The number of platelets sequestered to the endothelium was calculated from the difference between coronary in- and output of platelets. The myocardial production of lactate and consumption of pyruvate and coronary perfusion pressure were also determined.
Results : At a flow rate of 5 ml/min only about 3% of the applied platelets did not emerge from the coronary system, in any group. In contrast, 13.1±1.2% (mean±SEM) of infused platelets became adherent in low-flow perfusion in the control group without anaesthetic. The adherence was reduced with each 1 MAC isoflurane (to 6.2±1.2%), sevoflurane (to 4.4±0.9%) or halothane (to 3.2±1.5%) (each P <0.05 vs. control). Volatile anaesthetic, 0.5 MAC, did not inhibit platelet adhesion to a statistically significant extent in any case. Perfusion pressure and metabolic parameters were not statistically different between the control and the hearts exposed to anaesthetics.
Conclusion : Volatile anaesthetics in a concentration of 1 MAC can reduce the adhesion of platelets in the coronary system under reduced flow conditions. This action does not arise from vasodilation or inhibition of ischaemic stress.     

Synergistic interaction between the effects of propofol and midazolam with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity in rabbits

Background: It has been shown that the depressive effects of both propofol and midazolam on consciousness are synergistic with opioids, but the nature of their interactions on other physiological systems, e. g. respiration, has not been fully investigated. The present study examined the effect of propofol and midazolam alone and in combination with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity (PNA) and whether such interactions are additive or synergistic. Methods: PNA was recorded in 27 anaesthetised and artificially ventilated rabbits. In three groups, propofol, fentanyl and midazolam were administered intravenously in incremental doses to construct dose-response curves for the depressant effects of each one on PNA. In another two groups, the effect of pretreatment with either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. on the effects of propofol and fentanyl respectively on PNA were studied. Results: Propofol and fentanyl caused a dose-dependent depression of PNA with complete abolition at the highest total doses of 16 mg · kg^?1 i. v. and 32 μg · kg^?1 i. v., respectively. In contrast, midazolam in incremental doses to a total of 0.8 mg · kg^?1 reduced mean PNA by 63%, but approximately 12% of PNA remained at a total dose as high as 6.4 mg · kg^?1. The mean ED₅₀s, calculated from dose-response curves, were 5.4 mg · kg^?1, 3.9 μg · kg^?1 and 0.4 mg · kg^?1 for propofol, fentanyl and midazolam, respectively. Initial doses of either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. acted synergistically with subsequent doses of either propofol or fentanyl to abolish PNA at total doses of 8 mg · kg^?1 and 8 μg · kg^?1, respectively. Conclusion: Fentanyl has a synergistic interaction with both propofol and midazolam on PNA and hence potentially on respiration.     

Influence of dopexamine hydrochloride on haemodynamics and regulators of circulation in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery

Background: Catecholaminergic support is often used to improve haemodynamics in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery. Dopexamine is a synthetic vasoactive catecholamine with beneficial microcirculatory properties. Methods: The influence of perioperative administration of dopexamine on cardiorespiratory data and important regulators of macro- and microcirculation were studied in 30 patients undergoing Whipple pancreaticduodenectomy. The patients received randomized and blinded either 2 μg · kg^?1 · min^?1 of dopexamine (n=15) or placebo (n=15, control group). The infusion was started after induction of anaesthesia and continued until the morning of the first postoperative day. Endothelin-1 (ET-1), vasopressin, atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), and catecholamine plasma levels were measured from arterial blood samples. Measurements were carried out after induction of anaesthesia, 2 h after onset of surgery, at the end of surgery, 2 h after surgery, and on the morning of the first postoperative day. Results: Cardiac index (CI) increased significantly in the dopexamine group (from 2.61±0.41 to 4.57±0.78 1 · min^?1 · m^?2) and remained elevated until the morning of the first postoperative day. Oxygen delivery index (DO₂I) and oxygen consumption index (VO₂I) were also significantly increased in the dopexamine group (DO₂I: from 416±91 to 717±110 ml/m² · m²; VO₂I: from 98±25 to 157±22 ml/m² · m²), being significantly higher than in the control group. pHi remained stable only in the dopexamine patients, indicating adequate splanchnic perfusion. Vasopressive regulators of circulation increased significantly only in the untreated control patients (vasopressin: from 4.37±1.1 to 35.9±12.1 pg/ml; ET-1: from 2.88±0.91 to 6.91±1.20 pg/ml). Conclusion: Patients undergoing major abdominal surgery may profit from prophylactic perioperative administration of dopexamine hydrochloride in the form of improved haemodynamics and oxygenation as well as beneficial influence on important regulators of organ blood flow.     

Systemic analgesia adapted to the children's condition

A concept of balanced analgesia using nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), paracetamol (acetaminophen), opioids, and corticosteroids can also be used in patients with pre-existing illnesses. NSAIDs are the most effective treatment for acute pain of moderate intensity in children; however, these drugs should be avoided in patients at increased risk for serious side effects, e.g. patients with renal impairment, bleeding tendency, or extreme prematurity. NSAIDs can be given with minimal risks to the younger child with mild to moderate asthma, and, in these patients, the use of steroids can be encouraged; in addition to their antiemetic and analgesic action, a beneficial effect on asthma symptoms can be expected. In the non-intubated child with cerebral trauma, exaggerated sedation caused by opioids and increased bleeding tendency caused by NSAIDs must be avoided. In neonates and small infants, the oral administration of sucrose or glucose is helpful to minimize pain reaction during short uncomfortable interventions.