已婚流动妇女的婚姻及生育状况分析

目的:了解外来已婚妇女的婚姻和生育状况及其影响因素;评价“以现居住地为主”的计划生育综合干预对外米已婚妇女的婚姻观、生育观、生育意愿等观念的影响。方法:资料来源于1998年上海闵行区外来流动人口“以现居住地为主”的计划生育综合干预项目。结果:外来已婚育龄妇女初婚年龄小,平均为23.2岁。不同人口学特征的外来育龄妇女婚姻基础不同,来自江苏省、原籍职业为工人、低年龄组的妇女自由恋爱的比例大,婚姻满意度高。本次调查的外来妇女一孩率为68.8％,二孩率为22.6％,多孩率为0.7％。外来已婚妇女现有子女数的多元Logistic分析显示外来育龄妇女及其丈夫年龄大、初婚年龄小、在原籍未接受过计划生育宣传教育、婚姻基础为包办婚姻的妇女子女数多。此外,本研究还发现外来已婚育龄妇女的理想男孩数与妇女是否接受过计划生育宣传教育、丈夫职业、原籍、现有子女数等因素有关。结论:外来育龄妇女初婚年龄较小、早婚早育的现象仍较普遍。她们仍偏向生育较多的子女,对男孩的偏爱依然较明显。实行“以现居住地为主”的计划生育管理与宣传教育干预有助于加强流动人口的计划生育管理,转变外来育龄妇女的生育观和生育意愿。故应加强计划生育宣传力度,开展计划生育优质服务,促进上海市的计划生育工作。     

Age at marriage and fertility (Implications for family planning)

Since most fertility occurs in marriage, a rise in the age of marriage can reduce world fertility. Conception control differs significantly in the developed and undeveloped countries. The major aspect of fertility control in the developed countries is contraception, but since it is not 100% effective, sociodemographic variables are still a factor. Later marriage means less female fertility exposed to intercourse, which can particularly affect already subfecund women. The number of women in professions and careers also dampens fertility rates. Western Europe responded to the Malthusian challenge of overpopulation in the nineteenth century with an increase in the marriage age, which significantly cut fertility. In the undeveloped countries, some drop in fertility is occurring because of a rise in the marriage age due to increasing education and employment, and a legal attempt through legislation to prohibit early marriages. A major advantage of significant worldwide rise in the marriage age could at best lower the birth rate to only 2% per year, which is still too high. Legal measures do not appear to be worthwhile in raising the marriage age since they only encourage extramarital relationships. The major hope is that modernization significantly affects the nature of marriage by changing the status of women, encouraging men with new careers to postpone starting a family, and by raising economic standards. The effect of these changes on population growth can only be observed and not regulated.     

Determinants of sterilization among married couples in Korea]

OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to examine the determinants of sterilization in South Korea. METHODS: This study was based on the data from the Korea National Fertility Survey carried out in the year 2000 by the Korea Institute of Health and Social Affairs. The subjects of the analysis were 4,604 women and their husbands who were in their first marriage, in the age group of 15-49 years. The data were analyzed by multiple logistic regression analysis. RESULTS: Consistent with the findings of previous studies, the woman's age and the number of total children increased the likelihood of sterilization. In addition, the year of marriage had a strong positive association with sterilization. Interestingly, the number of surviving sons tended to increase the likelihood of sterilization, whereas the woman's education level and age at the time of marriage showed a negative association with sterilization. Religion, place of residence, son preference, and the husband's education level, age and type of occupation were not significant determinants of sterilization. CONCLUSIONS: The sex of previous children and lower level of education are distinct determinants of sterilization among women in South Korea. More studies are needed in order to determine the associations between sterilization rate and decreased fertility.     

Fertility determinants in Puerto Rico

This paper examines the proximate determinants of fertility in Puerto Rico using data from a 1982 island-wide study. Contraceptive use was found to be the primary direct determinant of fertility in Puerto Rico, both for the total population and for each level of education studied. Female sterilization is the most prevalent method of contraception used in Puerto Rico at each educational level. Marriage is also important in Puerto Rico and is the only proximate determinant that varies across education groups. Late age at first marriage, in addition to high contraceptive use, accounts for the below-replacement fertility of women who have more than a high school education. In contrast, women who have not completed high school tend to marry early and not practice contraception for birth-spacing purposes. This study shows the advantages of analyzing fertility determinants at the population subgroup level (i.e., women of various educational attainment levels) so that the fertility of the total population can be better understood.     

Women empowerment and marital fertility in Oman

International studies have the inverse relationship of women education and empowerment on fertility. Our aim is to study the association of women education and empowerment with some of fertility indicators or determinants namely; total number of children ever-born, age of women at her first birth and the last closed birth interval length in a community based survey (National Health Survey, 2000) A cross-sectional survey of the health status of Omani community was designed. Face to face interview to 2037 ever married women including demographic data, fertility patterns, family planning, two women empowerment indices (decision making and freedom of movement), and other reproductive health modules. About 31% of the sample was considered highly empowered in decision- making and the mean number of decisions taken in the household was 4.46 for the overall sample. For freedom of movement, 29% of the sample was highly empowered with a mean number of 3.88 for the overall sample. The mean values of both indices varied significantly according to age, residence, level of education and work status. Higher freedom of movement score women was more likely to have less number of children in the first 20 years of marriage. Women of 'higher score of decision making index were more likely to have longer closed birth interval. Those scored low in the decision making index were more likely to get a child at an earlier age. In developing countries where fertility limitation depend on "modern" methods, women's education and autonomy are considered as strong tools to make changes in demographic transition.     

Do demographics affect marital satisfaction?

This study examined the effects of age, education, number of children, employment status, and length of marriage on marital satisfaction. Seven hundred and eighty-seven nonrandomly selected married adults from the Flanders region in Belgium completed the Maudsley Marital Questionnaire (MMQ) (Arrindell, Boelens, & Lambert, 1983a). The results indicated a statistically significant difference between the marital satisfaction of the first married and remarried adults. A gender-level analysis showed a statistically significant difference between the marital satisfaction of men and women. Among the demographic variables, the effect of length of marriage was highly significant with marital satisfaction. In a separate analysis, we found that the effect of age and number of children had a statistically significant effect on the sexual adjustment of the respondents. Accordingly, we found that age, number of children, and length of marriage were significantly positively correlated with sexual adjustment (MMQ-S) and educational attainment with general-life adjustment (MMQ-GL) problems.     

Factors affecting unmet need for family planning in southern nations, nationalities and peoples region, ethiopia

Background

High fertility and low contraceptive prevalence characterize Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Region. In such populations, unmet needs for contraception have a tendency to be high, mainly due to the effect of socio-economic and demographic variables. However, there has not been any study examining the relationship between these variables and unmet need in the region. This study, therefore, identifies the key socio- demographic determinants of unmet need for family planning in the region.

Methods

The study used data from the 2000 and 2005 Ethiopian Demographic and Health Surveys. A total of 2,133 currently married women age 15–49 from the 2000 survey and 1,988 from the 2005 survey were included in the study. Unmet need for spacing, unmet need for limiting and total unmet need were used as dependent variables. Socio- demographic variables (respondent''s age, age at marriage, number of living children, sex composition of living children, child mortality experience, place of residence, respondent''s and partner''s education, religion and work status) were treated as explanatory variables and their relative importance was examined on each of the dependent variables using multinomial and binary logistic regression models.

Results

Unmet need for contraception increased from 35.1% in 2000 to 37.4% in 2005. Unmet need for spacing remained constant at about 25%, while unmet need for limiting increased by 20% between 2000 and 2005. Age, age at marriage, number of living children, place of residence, respondent''s education, knowledge of family planning, respondent''s work status, being visited by a family planning worker and survey year emerged as significant factors affecting unmet need. On the other hand, number of living children, education, age and age at marriage were the only explanatory variables affecting unmet need for limiting. Number of living children, place of residence, age and age at marriage were also identified as factors affecting total unmet need for contraception.

Conclusion

unmet need for spacing is more prevalent than unmet need for limiting. Women with unmet need for both spacing and limiting are more likely to be living in rural areas, have lower level of education, lower level of knowledge about family planning methods, have no work other than household chores, and have never been visited by a family planning worker. In order to address unmet need for family planning in the region, policy should set mechanisms to enforce the law on minimum age for marriage, improve child survival and increase educational access to females. In addition, the policy should promote awareness creation about family planning in rural areas.     

Fertility profile of a rural community of Kashmir in longitudinal association with maternal age

The study was conducted among 264 rural women past menopause who had never used contraception and who attended Hajin Health Block attached to the Community Medicine Department of the SKIMS Srinigar, Kashmir Valley, India. Retrospective reports of pregnancy histories and outcomes were collected. 1405 live births occurred: 654 (46.55%) were male and 751 (53.45%) were female. The sex ratio at birth was 1148 females per 1000 males. 39.29% of births occurred to women 20-25 years old. By the age of 35 years and higher, only 5.90% of births occurred. 1217 children survived: 578 male and 639 female. The survival ratio was 1105 females to 1000 males. Child survival was 92.20% among women under 20 years old and only 57.83% among women 35 years and older. Child survival decreased with increasing age; maternal age and child survival were found to be highly significantly correlated for male children and for both sexes. Average number of children during the entire reproductive period was 5.32 children: 2.48 male and 2.84 females. 84.77% of children were born by the maternal age of 30 years. An average of 4.62 children survived per woman: 2.19 male and 2.43 female. 87.23% of infants born to mothers under 30 years old survived. 1.41 children were born to women by the age of 20 years; 1.30 children survived, which represented 26.50% of the average family size. The gross reproduction rate in this study was 2.84, and the net reproduction rate was 2.43. An increase in marriage age to 20 years would reduce fertility by 26.50%. The most cost effective approach to family planning would concentrate on women 20-25 years old, the most fertile years of the reproductive period. Permanent methods could be introduced among women 25-30 years old, because 85% of family size would have already been achieved.     

Black and white differences in the effect of women's educational attainment on age at first marriage

"This study uses data from the June 1992 Current Population Survey to examine the effect of educational attainment on age at first marriage among Black and White women in the United States. The results both support and modify claims stemming from previous research. There is evidence for the contention that educational attainment delays age at first marriage for Black and White women. The greater impact of educational attainment on delaying marriage for White women in confirmed. An important discovery stems from using degree attained rather than years of education and our distinguishing four levels of education beyond high school. At less than a bachelor's degree, Black women marry later than White women, but among those with a bachelor's degree or higher, Black women who marry do so earlier than White women."     

流动人口妇女生殖/避孕知识及行为的影响因素

目的:对已经接受避孕节育/生殖健康知识宣教与技术服务干预的流动人口妇女进行生殖/避孕知识的认知及避孕药具现用率的变化情况进行调查,并对相关影响因素进行分析,为促进对流动人口避孕节育/生殖健康教育和更有效地技术服务提供科学依据。方法:采用分层随机整群抽样方法,用个人问卷形式对非居住地户籍但在当地居住满3个月以上、并且已经接受了避孕/生殖健康知识宣教与技术服务干预后的15~35岁女性2289人进行现况调查。结果:干预后生殖健康和避孕知识及格率分别为95.2%和92.5%。在有性生活史人群的调查中,避孕药具使用率达到92.9%(1399/1506),其中未婚者为75.5%(319/423),已婚者为98.7%(1069/1083)。结论:干预后流动人口年轻妇女生殖/避孕知识认知程度以及避孕药具使用率均较干预前明显提高。婚姻状况、性生活史和经济收入与生殖和避孕知识有较强的相关关系;兄弟姐妹数、本人及母亲的文化程度、对父母婚姻关系的评价以及婚后子女数量也是其影响因素;年龄、文化程度、经济收入、生殖和避孕知识得分高低则是影响避孕药具使用率的主要因素。     

Marital fertility in Lebanon: a study based on the population and housing survey

This study tested the general economic theory of fertility within the contextual setting of the Lebanese society, by using the 1996 Population and Housing Database Survey. The theory argues that the household's demand for a child is closely related to different services and utilities ascribed to that child. It also claims that fertility as such is income-inelastic, but becomes positively associated with the household's income when the notion of child-quality is added to the model. Findings confirm the baseline inverse association between an index of the household's socioeconomic status (HSES) and the cumulative fertility level. However, when women's education was added to the model, an interaction was observed whereby the illiterate subgroup--unlike the educated--was at higher risk of having a large number of children with improvement in their economic conditions. A similar interaction was found between women's and husband's education. It was concluded that in response to higher socioeconomic status, illiterate women end up supplying an excess number of children, an effect mediated by the shortening of lactation period, which is in turn triggered by a higher access to breast milk substitutes. On the other hand, their educated husbands demand 'child quantity' since this educational gap grants them more power to decide their family size. In contrast, educated women demand child 'quality' as they expect both material and opportunity costs of having a child to coincide with the norms and values of their social class. Their lower supply of births with increased economic well-being is primarily attributed to a higher use of modern contraceptive methods. Other factors investigated in this study included the potential effect of family structure on fertility, and control was done on a number of other sociocultural and demographic variables, such as women's work status, husband's occupation, age at marriage and area of residence.     

Early marriage,premarital fertility,and marital dissolution: results for Blacks and Whites

Based on data from the marital histories contained in the 1973 National Survey of Family Growth, this research investigates the impact of age at 1st marriage and premarital fertility status on subsequent marital dissolution for both black women and white women 1st married between 1950 and 1970. Results, using multivariate proportional hazards models, indicate that 1) premarital births, but not premarital pregnancies, increase the risk of marital dissolution; 2) an increasing age at the 1st marriage reduces the risk of marital separation and divorce, but not monotonically; 3) blacks differ from whites in that they are less responsive to the effects of a premarital birth or a young age at 1st marriage in increasing the likelihood of marital instability; and 4) an older age at 1st marriage offsets somewhat the destabilizing effects of a premarital birth. Variables used in the analysis include husband/wife age difference at marriage, education at marriage, farm versus nonfarm background, stability of parental marriage, religion, religiosity, work before marriage, number of siblings, urban or rural residence, western versus nonwestern region, 1st marriage cohort, premarital fertility status and age at 1st marriage. Policy implications include reducing the level of premarital births, and establishing support programs for those having a premarital birth without a legitimating marriage which will delay subsequent marriage, especially if the birth occurred at a young age.     

Links Between Education and Age at Marriage among Palestinian Women in Israel: Changes Over Time

This study focuses on the link between education and marriage timing among Israeli‐Palestinian women. Theoretical discussions on marriage timing center on the effect of the time women spend in educational institutions on their age at marriage, and on the change in the desirable traits of women in the marriage market. But most of these arguments overlook situations where significant changes in education take place alongside retention of traditional patriarchal values. Based on data from three population censuses – in 1983, 1995 and 2008—our results suggest that staying longer in schooling delays marriage, so women with less education are more likely to marry earlier than others. While young age is still considered an important characteristic in the Israeli‐Palestinian marriage market, and women who delay marriage face a greater risk of remaining single, education becomes more important over the years so that postponing marriage becomes especially problematic for low‐educated women. Our findings suggest that traditional norms and structural conditions together shape marriage timing.     

Use of the statistical method of paired combinations in studying aspects of regulating family size

The link between the fertility of 1652 women and socioeconomic conditions was examined using a standard statistical method and a paired combination method. The use of a chi-square criterion for a quadrapolar table made possible the determination of the extent of correlation between the women's fertility and the per capita income in the family, education, the age at marriage, and the number of planned children. The results of both methods were compared, confirming the accuracy of the paired combinations method, which minimizes energy outputs and resource outlays.     

Fertility and family planning in the Arab region

This article describes fertility trends and family planning practices in the 8 Arab countries participating in World Fertility Surveys in 1976-81: Egypt, Jordan, Mauritania, Morocco, the Sudan, Syria, Tunisia, and the Yemen Arab Republic. The region's population growth rate currently stands at about 3%/year, and the population of the Arab World is expected to reach 400 million by the year 2010. Mean age at 1st marriage now ranges from 17 years in Yemen to 24 years in Tunisia, and has been slowly rising in all 8 countries. Current fertility levels in the Arab region are 2-3 times those required for generational replacement. Completed fertility of ever-married women 45-49 years of age ranges from over 6 children in Mauritania and the Sudan; about 7 children in Egypt, Morocco, Tunisia, and Yemen; about 8 children in Syria; to almost 9 children in Jordan. Examination of age-specific and total fertility rate trends reveals little change in Mauritania, the Sudan, and Syria; a decline in total fertility of about 1 child/woman in Jordan; declines of 1.5-1.8 children/woman in Egypt, Morocco, and Tunisia; and increases in total fertility in Yemen. 93-99% of infants in the region are breastfed, with a mean duration of 12-20 months. Breastfeeding appears to prolong the period of anovulation by an average of 4 months in Syria; 6 months in Egypt, Tunisia, and Yemen; and 9 months in Mauritania and the Sudan. The mean number of children desired by currently married women is about 4 in Egypt and Tunisia; 5 in Morocco and Yemen; 6 in Jordan, Syria, and the Sudan; and 9 in Mauritania. The percentage of ever-married women who have ever used contraception ranges from 2-3% in Mauritania and Yemen to 40-46% in Egypt, Jordan, and Tunisia. Current contraceptive use is highest (36%) in Tunisia. The following factors seem to be associated with greater use of contraception: urban residence, higher educational levels, 3 or more children already in the family, and more sons than daughters. Only 32-38% of women in Egypt, Jordan, and Tunisia indicated they would never use contraception compared to 92-97% in Yemen and Mauritania. Rising age at 1st marriage and reductions in child mortality have ushered in the transition from high to moderate fertility levels in the Arab world. However, unless population growth rates are further reduced, socioeconomic development will be impeded and efforts to improve women's status, maternal child health, and the quality of life will be frustrated.     

Determinants of fertility in a rural society: some evidence from Sierra Leone

Data from a sample of 2000 currently married women aged 15-49 years, during a fertility and family planning survey carried out in rural areas of Moyamba District of Sierra Leone in 1979, are used to investigate the influences of background (wife's tribal and religious affiliations, and current place of residence), socio-economic (wife's education and occupation, and husband's education), and demographic (wife's current age, age at first marriage, desired family size, and infant-child mortality) variables on marital fertility in Sierra Leone. An OLS regression analysis indicates that the demographic variables, size of place of residence and wife's occupation affect fertility significantly. Wife's educational level and tribal affiliation exhibit marginal effects on fertility. Policy implications of these findings are discussed.     

A comparison of the performance of male and female CBD distributors in Peru.

This report presents the results of an operations research project to increase male involvement in family planning in Peru. Two community-based distribution (CBD) programs, PROFAMILIA of Lima and CENPROF of Trujillo, Peru, recruited male contraceptive distributors and compared their performance to that of female distributors recruited at the same time. Both programs found it harder to recruit men than women as distributors. Program supervisors, who were women, were less comfortable with men than with other women, even though there were no differences in distributor compliance with program norms. Male distributors were more likely to serve male clients and sell male methods (condoms), while female distributors were more likely to serve female clients and sell female methods (pills). Men sold as much or more total couple-years of protection than did women, and they recruited as many or more new acceptors. Gender was found to exert an impact on method mix independent of other distributor characteristics, such as age, education, marital status, and number of living children. The study suggests that family planning programs can influence method mix and client characteristics by recruiting men as CBD distributors.     

Women's education and the timing of marriage and childbearing in the next generation: evidence from rural Bangladesh

In traditional settings where early marriage and early childbearing persist, decisions about age at marriage are often made by parents, and mothers-in-law tend to have considerable influence in hastening the initiation of childbearing. This study analyzes data from a 2002 survey in six villages in rural Bangladesh to test the hypothesis that daughters of women with more education marry later and that daughters-in-law of more educated women initiate childbearing at a slower rate. Using Cox proportional hazard models, we find significant associations between the educational level of mothers and the age at marriage of their daughters and between the educational level of mothers-in-law and the timing offirst birth among their daughters-in-law, although the association between the former attenuates when controlling for other variables. We also find that these associations do not appear to be mediated by the senior women's level of empowerment. We conclude that in rural Bangladesh there is a significant relationship between female education in one generation and the timing of marriage and childbearing in the next.     

Girl Child Marriage and Its Effect on Fertility in Pakistan: Findings from Pakistan Demographic and Health Survey, 2006–2007

Child marriage (before 18 years) is prevalent in Pakistan, which disproportionately affects young girls in rural, low income and low education households. Our study aims to determine the association between early marriage and high fertility and poor fertility health indicators among young women in Pakistan beyond those attributed to social vulnerabilities. Nationally representative data from Pakistan Demographic and Health Survey, 2006–2007, a cross-sectional observational survey, were limited to ever-married women aged 20–24 years (n = 1,560; 15 % of 10,023) to identify differences in poor fertility outcomes [high fertility (three or more childbirths); rapid repeat childbirth (<24 months between births); unwanted pregnancy (any ever); pregnancy termination (any stillbirth, miscarriage or abortion ever)] by early (<18) versus adult (≥18) age at marriage. Associations between child marriage and fertility outcomes were assessed by calculating adjusted odds ratios (AORs) using logistic regression models after controlling for demographics, social equity indicators (education, wealth index, rural residence), contraception use, marriage duration and culture-specific factors (husband’s desire for more children, son preference). Overall, 50 % of ever-married women aged 20–24 years in Pakistan were married before the age of 18 years. Girl child marriage was significantly (p < 0.001) associated with low social equity indicators (poverty, rural residence, and no formal education). Adjusted logistic regression models showed that girl child marriage was significantly associated with high fertility (AOR 6.62; 95 % CI 3.53–12.43), rapid repeat childbirth (AOR 2.88; 95 % CI 1.83–4.54), unwanted pregnancy (AOR 2.90; 95 % CI 1.75–4.79), and pregnancy termination (AOR 1.75; 95 % CI 1.10–2.78). Girl child marriage affects half of all ever-married women aged 20–24 years in Pakistan, and increases their risk for high fertility and poor fertility health indicators, highlighting the need of increasing the age of marriage among women in Pakistan. Efforts to eliminate girl child marriage by strict law enforcement, promoting civil, sexual and reproductive health rights for women can help eliminate girl child marriage in Pakistan.     

609例城乡育龄妇女人工流产现状及其影响因素的研究

对６０９例城乡育龄妇女的人工流产现状进行了调查。结果发现,６０．５９％的城乡育龄妇女有人工流产史１８．３９％的妇女有婚前人工流产史。人流次数最多的７次,婚前人流次数最多达７次。多因素线性回归分析发现,妇女妊娠次数、生育次数、丈夫的年龄、妇女结婚时的年龄、性伴数等是影响妇女人工工流产的主要危险因素。研究提示,加强育龄妇女的生殖健康知识教育,减少婚前性行为和意外妊娠的发生率,降低人工流产率对保护妇女生