Three anteromedial fasciocutaneous leg island flaps for covering defects of the lower two-thirds of the leg

Three different fasciocutaneous island flaps based on the medial septocutaneous vessels of the leg have been successfully transferred in eight patients. The flaps are based on three segments of the anteromedial aspect of the leg where their feeding vessels were most frequently identified. These anteromedial fasciocutaneous leg island flaps are thin, reliable and safe. They are relatively easy to elevate and are useful for covering defects of the lower two-thirds of the leg.     

Cross leg posterior tibial artery fasciocutaneous island flap for reconstruction of lower leg defects.

We have utilised a posterior tibial artery flap from the opposite healthy limb for reconstruction of defects of middle and lower third of leg in 6 patients. The flap can be based either distally or proximally as the need be. The results have been quite encouraging.     

岛状皮瓣和肌皮瓣修复小腿及足部创伤性皮肤软组织缺损

目的探讨岛状皮瓣和肌皮瓣修复小腿及足部创伤性皮肤软组织缺损的疗效及适应证。方法1995年1月至2004年9月，对52例小腿及足部创伤性皮肤软组织缺损的患者，采用腓肠肌肌皮瓣。小腿前外侧皮瓣，小腿外侧皮瓣，小腿内侧皮瓣，内踝上皮瓣，腓肠神经营养血管皮瓣等6种皮瓣和肌皮瓣进行修复。结果52例患者皮瓣全部成活，1例术后皮瓣下脓肿经切开引流愈合，3例皮瓣远端小面积局部坏死．经换药或再次手术移植皮片后创面愈合。术后随访4个月至4年，皮瓣成活良好，所修复的小腿及足恢复良好功能。结论岛状皮瓣和肌皮瓣是修复小腿及足部创伤性软组织缺损的理想方法，应根据小腿及足部软组织情况、血管条件、创面部位，选择不同的皮瓣修复。     

岛状皮瓣和肌皮瓣修复小腿及足部创伤性皮肤软组织缺损

目的探讨岛状皮瓣和肌皮瓣修复小腿及足部创伤性皮肤软组织缺损的疗效及适应证.方法 1995年1月至2004年9月,对52例小腿及足部创伤性皮肤软组织缺损的患者,采用腓肠肌肌皮瓣,小腿前外侧皮瓣,小腿外侧皮瓣,小腿内侧皮瓣, 内踝上皮瓣,腓肠神经营养血管皮瓣等6种皮瓣和肌皮瓣进行修复.结果 52例患者皮瓣全部成活,1例术后皮瓣下脓肿经切开引流愈合,3例皮瓣远端小面积局部坏死,经换药或再次手术移植皮片后创面愈合.术后随访4个月至4年,皮瓣成活良好,所修复的小腿及足恢复良好功能.结论岛状皮瓣和肌皮瓣是修复小腿及足部创伤性软组织缺损的理想方法,应根据小腿及足部软组织情况、血管条件、创面部位,选择不同的皮瓣修复.     

Propeller perforator flaps in distal lower leg: evolution and clinical applications

Simple or complex defects in the lower leg, and especially in its distal third, continue to be a challenging task for reconstructive surgeons. A variety of flaps were used in the attempt to achieve excellence in form and function. After a long evolution of the reconstructive methods, including random pattern flaps, axial pattern flaps, musculocutaneous flaps and fasciocutaneous flaps, the reappraisal of the works of Manchot and Salmon by Taylor and Palmer opened the era of perforator flaps. This era began in 1989, when Koshima and Soeda, and separately Kroll and Rosenfield described the first applications of such flaps. Perforator flaps, whether free or pedicled, gained a high popularity due to their main advantages: decreasing donor-site morbidity and improving aesthetic outcome. The use as local perforator flaps in lower leg was possible due to a better understanding of the cutaneous circulation, leg vascular anatomy, angiosome and perforasome concepts, as well as innovations in flaps design. This review will describe the evolution, anatomy, flap design, and technique of the main distally pedicled propeller perforator flaps used in the reconstruction of defects in the distal third of the lower leg and foot.     

穿支蒂螺旋桨皮瓣修复足踝部软组织缺损25例临床分析

目的 探讨穿支蒂螺旋桨皮瓣在足踝部软组织缺损创面修复中的应用效果.方法 自2007年7月到2011年12月,对足踝部软组织缺损患者采用穿支蒂螺旋桨皮瓣修复25例,穿支动脉来源分别为腓动脉18例,胫后动脉6例,足背动脉1例.皮瓣面积4cm×10cm～9 cm×33 cm.结果 供区直接缝合9例,游离植皮16例,有3例皮瓣术后出现静脉淤血,2例经滴血疗法最终皮瓣成活,1例皮瓣远端1/3坏死,经清创后游离植皮治愈.所有患者均获随访,随访时间1～26个月,所有皮瓣蒂部平整,外表美观,患者较为满意.结论 穿支螺旋桨皮瓣操作简单、安全有效,在足踝部软组织缺损创面的修复中比其他带蒂皮瓣更具优越性.     

Perforator-based fasciocutaneous island flaps for the reconstruction of axillary defects following excision of hidradenitis suppurativa.

Hidradenitis suppurativa is a chronic socially debilitating disorder of unknown aetiology. Treatments include simple incision and drainage, excision and healing by secondary intention, spilt-skin grafting, and local-flap reconstructions. All of these methods can leave unsightly scars. Recurrence of the disease can be significantly reduced only by wide local excision of all the hair-bearing skin. Most methods involve repeated hospital admission, and leave contour defects in the upper arm and axilla. We describe a new method using double opposing V-Y perforator-based flaps to recreate the axillary contour after wide excision of the hair-bearing skin of the axilla. This method allows both axillae to be treated in a single stage, and represents a new alternative in the treatment of axillary hidradenitis suppurativa. Four patients are described: three underwent bilateral excision and reconstruction, while the fourth had a unilateral procedure. All patients had a single surgical procedure with no flap loss. The result following known reconstructive procedures is far from satisfactory: skin grafting leaves a divot deformity, and when a local flap, such as the posterior arm or thoracodorsal flap, is used it leaves a large bulky flap in the axilla. In our technique the flaps maintain the diamond shape of the axilla.     

Distally based perforator flaps for reconstruction of post-traumatic defects of the lower leg and foot. A review of the anatomy and clinical outcomes

Study aims

To report the surgical anatomy of the perforator arteries at the lower leg, analyse clinical outcomes in previous studies, and forward methodological recommendations for future studies of post-traumatic perforator flap reconstructions.

Methods

A study sample of 640 human patients drawn from 24 clinical reports was included for review. The sample comprised of four subsets: sural flap reconstructions (n = 257), saphenous flaps (n = 122), supramalleolar flaps (n = 92), and propeller flaps (n = 169).

Results

Statistical analysis of samples from anatomical studies documents significant differences in the perforator distribution from the tibial and peroneal artery; peroneal perforator arteries are randomly organised whereas tibial artery perforators are clustered at three definite levels. The failure rates in clinical studies ranged from 0% to 6%, being lowest for supramalleolar flap reconstructions and highest for saphenous flaps; however, differences between the four subsets were not statistically significant at the 95% confidence level. Due to methodological flaws, outcome comparisons in the actual study sample should be interpreted cautiously; in most clinical studies both risk variables and outcome indicators are poorly defined. The outcome of Dynamic Infrared Thermography imaging of post-transposition changes of flap perfusion is reported.

Summary

Fasciocutaneous perforator flaps seem to have high survival rates and represent a feasible approach to post-traumatic reconstructions, especially in low-resource settings. A template for data gathering is recommended for higher accuracy in future comparative studies, and for scientific analysis of success and risk factors. New imaging techniques indicate a promising potential of micro-circular angiogenesis during the first two weeks after flap transpose.     

Local perforator island flaps in post-traumatic reconstruction of middle third of the leg

Perforator flaps have been introduced for coverage of local and distant defects. Various designs of this flap are possible, but their role in the setting of trauma is debated. We report that it is possible to raise these flaps in cases of post-traumatic lower limb reconstruction with good results. Consideration must be given to the type of movement that is planned vis-a-vis the number of perforators identified.     

Reconstructive surgery for foot and ankle defects in pediatric patients: Comparison between anterolateral thigh perforator flaps and deep inferior epigastric perforator flaps

BackgroundsDue to the delicate tissue, small blood vessels and incomplete development of interarticular ligaments, skin and soft-tissue defects of the foot and ankle in pediatric patients remain a challenge for orthopedic and plastic surgeons. Anterolateral thigh perforator (ALTP) flap and deep inferior epigastric perforator (DIEP) flap are the most commonly used flaps for the repair of lower-extremity soft-tissue defects. The literature contains a shortage of evidence involving the differences between ALTP and DIEP flaps in the reconstruction of young patients with complex foot and ankle defects. This study was designed to determine which type of flap is better for foot and ankle repair in pediatric patients.MethodsFrom January 2004 to January 2018, 79 children younger than 14 years treated with DIEP flap (41 cases) or ALTP flap (38 cases) for composite defects of the feet and ankles were retrospectively investigated. The two groups were homogeneous in terms of age, the location of the defect, etiology, and flap area. Complications, scarring, cosmetic appearance, flap sensory recovery, and functional outcome were analyzed, and statistical analysis was performed.ResultsThe ALTP group had shorter operation time (155.0 ± 12.0 min vs 212.2 ± 23.9 min), flap harvested time (39.6 ± 5.1 min vs 57.2 ± 10.4 min), and operative blood loss (143.4 ± 23.7 ml vs 170.7 ± 44.7 ml) than the DIEP group (P < 0.05). In short-term follow-up, ALTP group showed a lower flap necrosis rate (5.3% vs 24.4%) and vascular insufficiency rate (2.6% vs 19.5%) than DIEP group (P < 0.05). In long-term follow-up, ALTP group showed a lower late complication rate and better cosmetic, functional, scar outcomes than DIEP group (P < 0.05).ConclusionsThe study showed that an ALTP flap may brings better results than a DIEP flap in terms of short- and long-term complications, scarring, and morpho-functional outcomes for pediatric patients undergoing reconstruction of foot and ankle defects.     

Turnover cutaneous and fasciocutaneous flaps in the treatment of cutaneous defects of the leg

Twenty-nine cases of skin loss on the legs with bone exposure were studied. As an alternative to other techniques, turnover dermal fat flaps and turnover fasciodermal fat flaps were used for reconstruction of the defects. Excellent functional and aesthetic results were obtained. These flaps are easy to perform, the hospital stay is short, and there is minimal dissection in the leg.Fellowship of FPI of the Andalusian Regional Government, Service of Plastic Surgery, Associate Professor, Department of Surgery     

腓骨短肌肌瓣联合腓肠神经营养血管逆行岛状皮瓣治疗患者小腿远端及足部骨髓炎伴软组织缺损

目的 了解应用远端蒂腓骨短肌肌瓣联合腓肠神经营养血管逆行岛状皮瓣治疗患者小腿远端及足部骨髓炎伴软组织缺损的效果. 方法 2008年3月-2010年12月,笔者单位收治12例小腿远端及足部骨髓炎伴软组织缺损患者,其中7例为胫骨远端骨髓炎伴软组织缺损,1例为跟腱后侧慢性溃疡伴骨髓炎,4例为跟骨外侧软组织缺损伴骨髓炎及内固定物外露.彻底清创后,软组织缺损范围为4 cm×2 cm～13 cm×9 cm,骨缺损范围为3.0 cm ×3.0 cm ×3.0 cm～6.0 cm ×3.0 cm×4.0 cm.所有患者应用腓骨短肌肌瓣填充骨髓炎清创后形成的无效腔,腓肠神经营养血管逆行岛状皮瓣修复软组织缺损.手术切取皮瓣大小为5 cm×3 cm～14cm×10cm,肌瓣大小为11 cm ×3 cm～16 cm×4 cm.供瓣区直接缝合或植皮修复. 结果 11例皮瓣、肌瓣成活良好,创面均一次性愈合.1例皮瓣及肌瓣远端坏死,采用胫后动脉穿支肌皮瓣修复后愈合.随访6～ 24个月,皮瓣质地及外形良好,患者未复发骨髓炎. 结论 联合应用远端蒂腓骨短肌肌瓣与腓肠神经营养血管逆行岛状皮瓣移植,能有效治疗小腿远端及足部骨髓炎伴软组织缺损,操作简单、易行、安全可靠.     

腓肠神经逆行岛状筋膜皮瓣重建足远端部分缺损

目的报道应用带腓肠神经营养血管逆行岛状筋膜皮瓣及髂骨植骨重建足远端部分缺损的方法,探讨皮瓣转位范围。方法2002年3月～2006年2月,应用腓肠神经筋膜皮瓣及髂骨植骨修复32例足远端1/3外侧软组织和骨缺损患者。其中男23例,女9例;年龄17～58岁,平均35．2岁。本组32侧肢体,共32块皮瓣,其中12例患者进行髂骨植骨。开放创面27例,其中感染创面8例;无菌创面5例。创面面积为4．0 cm×7．0 cm～7．0 cm×16．0 cm。髂骨移植长度为4．0～7．0 cm,平均5．0 cm。手术先根据跖骨骨缺损大小切取髂骨,接着处理受区创面,然后将切取的髂骨植入跖骨骨缺损处,在电视透视下用克氏针固定,建立足外侧骨支架,最后利用腓肠神经逆行岛状筋膜皮瓣覆盖创面。结果32例患者获5～27个月(平均12．7个月)随访。皮瓣一期存活30例;皮瓣远端部分表皮坏死2例,经换药后愈合。髂骨移植一期骨愈合11例,愈合时间为3～14个月,平均5．7个月;骨不愈合1例,经再次植骨后愈合。皮瓣外形良好28例,皮瓣臃肿4例。供区创面一期愈合,无功能障碍。术后患足功能根据Maryland足部评分系统评价:优19例,良10例,可3例,优良率为90．6％。结论腓肠神经逆行岛状筋膜皮瓣结合髂骨植骨是重建足远端部分缺损较理想的方法。     

The distally based posterolateral supramalleolar neurofasciocutaneous island flap for coverage defects over the distal third of the leg and foot

A traditional-designed distally based sural flap centralized on the axis of the (medial) sural nerve and the lesser saphenous vein has been used widely for coverage of the distal third of the leg, ankle, malleoli, and foot. However, a variety of 5% to 47% of flap necrosis after the flap elevation and transposition were recorded in the literature. The unreliability of the distal part of the flap, especially when skin paddle located at the proximal third of the leg is at least partly due to their subfascial coursing of the median superficial sural artery and the medial sural nerve as well as the lesser saphenous vein. Based on the anatomic characteristics of the sural nerve and previous angiographic studies, a longitudinal chain-linked axial vascular network along with the sural nerve and the lateral sural nerve had been demonstrated on the posterolateral side of the leg from lateral retromalleolar gutter to the fibular head. A distally based posterolateral supramalleolar neurofasciocutaneous island flap centralized on this longitudinal neurovascular network was designed and used to reconstruct and cover the defects over the distal third of the leg, lateral malleolus, foot, and Achilles tendon. In this report we retrospectively review the clinical outcomes. This flap was used in 11 patients, including six young children aged 3 to 6 years. All flaps survived fully without complications except one flap which experienced postoperative infection which was controlled by dressing change and antibiotic application. Relevant surgical anatomy and detailed surgical techniques for elevation of the flap and its versatile usage are presented. Risks leading to flap necrosis, safe pedicle design, and manipulations etc. are discussed. In conclusion, this distally based posterolateral supramalleolar neurofasciocutaneous island flap is reliable and very useful for covering defects over the distal leg, ankle, heel, foot, and Achilles tendon, especially in young children.     

Distally-based random fasciocutaneous flaps for one-stage reconstruction of defects in the upper two-thirds of the leg

Ten distally-based random fasciocutaneous flaps were used successfully for the reconstruction of defects in the upper two-thirds of the leg. Basis, design, technique, indications, advantages, limitations and complications are discussed.     

预制岛状皮瓣修复手足大面积软组织缺损

目的探讨修复手足大面积软组织缺损的方法及临床效果。方法彻底清创后,测量出软组织缺损面积,然后在腹部或小腿后部设计可供转移的岛状皮瓣,画出其正常范围,再根据缺损面积放大,皮瓣远端放大5～10cm;切取时,先解剖、游离皮瓣远2/3部分并彻底止血,在深筋膜下放置硅胶囊或乳胶手套阻隔,皮瓣原位缝合;1周后局麻下解剖皮瓣近1/3部分,放置阻隔物并原位缝合;2～3周后解剖蒂部并切取整块皮瓣转移至受区,供区游离植皮。结果临床应用12例,1例皮瓣远端约1cm皮肤坏死,换药后愈合,其余11例全部成活,创面得到了良好覆盖,保住了肢体。结论在手足大面积软组织缺损修复中,预制岛状皮瓣是一种实用、经济的好方法。     

Experience with peroneus brevis muscle flaps for reconstruction of distal leg and ankle defects

Objective:

Peroneus brevis is a muscle in the leg which is expendable without much functional deficit. The objective of this study was to find out its usefulness in coverage of the defects of the lower leg and ankle.

Patients and Methods:

A retrospective analysis of the use of 39 pedicled peroneus brevis muscle flaps used for coverage of defects of the lower leg and ankle between November 2010 and December 2012 was carried out. The flaps were proximally based for defects of the lower third of the leg in 12 patients and distally based for reconstruction of defects of the ankle in 26 patients, with one patient having flaps on both ankles.

Results:

Partial flap loss in critical areas was found in four patients requiring further flap cover and in non-critical areas in two patients, which were managed with a skin graft. Three of the four critical losses occurred when we used it for covering defects over the medial malleolus. There was no complete flap loss in any of the patients.

Conclusion:

This flap has a unique vascular pattern and fails to fit into the classification of the vasculature of muscles by Mathes and Nahai. The unusual feature is an axial vessel system running down the deep aspect of the muscle and linking the perforators from the peroneal artery and anterior tibial artery, which allows it to be raised proximally or distally on a single perforator. The flap is simple to raise and safe for the reconstruction of small-to moderate-sized skin defects of the distal third of the tibia and all parts of the ankle except the medial malleolus, which is too far from the pedicle of the distally based flap. The donor site can be closed primarily to provide a linear scar. The muscle flap thins with time to provide a good result aesthetically at the primary defect.KEY WORDS: Ankle defects, lateral malleolus defects, lower leg defect, muscle flap, peroneus brevis flap, pedicle flap, tendo achilles defects