Comparison of muscle hypertrophy following 6-month of continuous and periodic strength training

To compare the effects of a periodic resistance training (PTR) program with those of a continuous resistance training (CTR) program on muscle size and function, 14 young men were randomly divided into a CTR group and a PTR group. Both groups performed high-intensity bench press exercise training [75 % of one repetition maximum (1-RM); 3 sets of 10 reps] for 3 days per week. The CTR group trained continuously over a 24-week period, whereas the PTR group performed three cycles of 6-week training (or retraining), with 3-week detraining periods between training cycles. After an initial 6 weeks of training, increases in cross-sectional area (CSA) of the triceps brachii and pectoralis major muscles and maximum isometric voluntary contraction of the elbow extensors and 1-RM were similar between the two groups. In the CTR group, muscle CSA and strength gradually increased during the initial 6 weeks of training. However, the rate of increase in muscle CSA and 1-RM decreased gradually after that. In the PTR group, increase in muscle CSA and strength during the first 3-week detraining/6-week retraining cycle were similar to that in the CTR group during the corresponding period. However, increase in muscle CSA and strength during the second 3-week detraining/6-week retraining cycle were significantly higher in the PTR group than in the CTR group. Thus, overall improvements in muscle CSA and strength were similar between the groups. The results indicate that 3-week detraining/6-week retraining cycles result in muscle hypertrophy similar to that occurring with continuous resistance training after 24 weeks.     

Recovery of visual-spatial learning and memory in chronic alcoholics

Administered the Memory-for-Designs Test and a verbal and Visuospatial paired associate learning test to separate groups of alcoholics (N = 32) 3 and 11 weeks abstinent from alcohol and to a matched control group (N = 16). Alcoholics were not impaired in verbal learning. Alcoholics 3 weeks abstinent performed significantly less well than controls on all nonverbal tasks and less well than 11-weeks alcoholics on one nonverbal measure. No significant differences were found between 11-week alcoholics and controls. The results suggest that some recovery of function may occur in alcoholics after 10 weeks of abstinence. The data also support the hypothesis of impaired right hemisphere in alcoholics.     

Modulation of limbic-cerebellar functional connectivity enables alcoholics to recognize who is who

Chronic alcoholism is known to disrupt functions served by distributed brain systems, including limbic and frontocerebellar circuits involved in resting-state and task-activated networks subserving component processes of memory often affected in alcoholics. Using an fMRI paradigm, we investigated whether memory performance by alcoholics on a face–name association test previously observed to be problematic for alcoholics could be explained by desynchronous activity between nodes of these specific networks. While in the scanner, 18 alcoholics and 15 controls performed a face–name associative learning task with different levels of processing at encoding. This task was designed to activate the hippocampus, cerebellum, and frontal cortex. Alcoholics and controls were also scanned at rest. Twelve alcoholics and 12 controls were selected to be matched on face–name recognition performance. Task-related fMRI analysis indicated that alcoholics had preserved limbic activation but lower cerebellar activation (Crus II) than the controls in the face–name learning task. Crus II was, therefore, chosen as a seed for functional connectivity MRI analysis. At rest, the left hippocampus and left Crus II had positively synchronized activity in controls, while hippocampal and cerebellar activities were negatively synchronized in alcoholics. Task engagement resulted in hippocampal-cerebellar desynchronization in both groups. We speculate that atypical cerebello-hippocampal activity synchronization during rest in alcoholics was reset to the normal pattern of asynchrony by task engagement. Aberrations from the normal pattern of resting-state default mode synchrony could be interpreted as enabling preserved face–name associative memory in alcoholism.     

Neurocognitive deficits of alcoholism: an intervention

This study investigated the impact of cognitive retraining on a sample of neurocognitively impaired alcoholics (N = 45). The treatment group received training on a hierarchical cumulative learning program. In this paradigm, the subjects mastered an isolated concept to automaticity, at which point a second and then a third concept were added. The training group demonstrated significantly improved performance over the practice and control groups on the three measures taken from the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: total number of categories, perseverative errors, and nonperseverative errors. Neither the practice nor the control group exhibited significantly improved performance. These data lend support to an information processing perspective and are at odds with research that infers that neurophysiological substrates preclude normal functioning in alcoholics and argues that mere exposure of alcoholics to training stimuli prompts significant improvements. Treatment implications are discussed.     

A randomized controlled trial of estrogen treatment in men with mild cognitive impairment

This randomized, placebo-controlled, cross-over study investigated whether estrogen treatment would have a beneficial effect on tests of verbal memory in men with mild cognitive impairment (MCI). Forty-three men newly diagnosed with MCI were administered a battery of neuropsychological tests before randomly receiving 12 weeks of treatment with estrogen or placebo followed by a 12 week cross-over treatment. A significant improvement in the total score, and in two subscale scores of the Buschke Selective Reminding Test occurred following estrogen treatment compared to both pretreatment and post-placebo scores (p < 0.05). However, benefit occurred only in the men who had received estrogen for 12 weeks following 12 weeks of placebo. Although these findings tentatively suggest that treatment with estrogen may improve verbal memory in men with MCI, the fact that the improvement occurred only in the group that received estrogen following 12 weeks of placebo and the absence of improvement on every test of verbal memory administered suggests that these findings need to be replicated using a larger sample size.     

Older alcoholics: profile of decline

Administered to 235 chronic alcoholics in an inpatient setting a standard psychological test battery 2 weeks after admission. Two analyses were calculated: A correlational analysis between age and the test variables and a comparison analysis between a younger (less than 50) and an older group. Results suggest that visual-spatial and constructional tasks, newer learning tasks, and secondary memory (and memory delay) show a more pronounced decline than do verbal or "left hemisphere" tasks. A sub-analysis of 30 younger and 30 older psychiatric patients further revealed that alcohol asserts a significant influence on decline in complex abstract tasks and on visual-spatial tasks (age is also a significant factor on visual-spatial tasks). This study re-validated previous findings using a more chronic alcohol population with standard psychological tests in a clinical setting.     

Computer-assisted attention retraining in head-injured individuals: a controlled efficacy study of an outpatient program

The efficacy of a computer-assisted attention retraining program was evaluated with 29 outpatients suffering from moderate to severe traumatic brain injury. Ss who were at least 12 months postinjury were randomly assigned either to the attention training program or a memory training program that served as a control condition. Training lasted 9 weeks with two 2-hr sessions per week for both groups. The experimental design evaluated outcome by juxtaposing a multiple baseline procedure for a 1st set of measures of attention and memory with a pre and post group comparison that relied on a 2nd set of neuropsychological tests. The experimental group improved significantly in comparison with the control group on measures of attention. The reversed pattern for the memory measures was not observed. None of the treatment effects generalized to the 2nd set of dependent variables.     

Does a period of detraining cause a decrease in serum brain-derived neurotrophic factor?

Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is one of the neurotrophins promoting cognitive function and contributing to neurogenesis and neuroprotection. Available evidence suggests that exercise influences serum BDNF concentrations, but that the effect is transient. The purpose of this study is to determine whether a period of aerobic training, followed by a period of detraining, can influence basal serum BDNF levels in humans. Sixteen young, sedentary subjects were assigned to an experimental group (n = 9) and a control group (n = 7). The experimental group performed an aerobic training program during 8 weeks, followed by 8 weeks of detraining, during which subjects returned to their previous, sedentary activity level. The control group remained physically inactive during 16 weeks. In both groups, performance on short-term (Digit Span test) and mid-term memory (Recall of Images) was assessed. Aerobic training significantly increased the VO₂ peak in the experimental group, and these values returned to baseline after 8 weeks of detraining. Basal serum BDNF was not influenced by 8 weeks of aerobic training and detraining did not seem to have an effect on basal peripheral BDNF concentrations. Both training and detraining did not clearly influence short-term memory performance on the Digit Span test and no differences were present between the experimental and control group on the mid-term memory test. Future studies should focus on patient groups and elderly to further investigate the effect of training and detraining on neurotrophic factors and cognitive function, and on the effects of training and detraining on the BDNF response to acute exercise.     

Cyclic corticosteroid immunosuppression is unsuccessful in the treatment of sperm antibody-related male infertility: a controlled study.

In this double blind cross-over study, 20 infertile men, who had sperm antibodies detected by the mixed antiglobulin reaction (MAR test) in the ejaculate and by the tray agglutination test (TAT) in serum, were treated with 40 mg/day prednisolone or placebo from days 1 to 10 of the partners' menstrual cycle. Patients were randomly allocated to different treatment groups. While group 1 started with placebo followed by verum for three consecutive cycles, group 2 began with verum and continued with placebo. All patients had regular intercourse (n = 19) or intra-cervical insemination at ovulation (n = 1). A post-coital test or a sperm penetration test was performed during verum and placebo regimes. Blood samples were drawn from the male partner at this time to control the efficacy of prednisolone treatment by checking the TAT titre. No pregnancy occurred during prednisolone or placebo treatment. In eight of 12 patients, post-coital testing showed little improvement and antibody titres decreased in seven of 16 patients. Side-effects from medication were reported by eight patients (seven verum and one placebo cycle) and caused treatment to be discontinued in two cases. Five patients' partners conceived at a later stage by intrauterine insemination with spermatozoa prepared by 'swim up' (n = 3) or by in-vitro fertilization (IVF n = 2). Thus high dose corticosteroid therapy was ineffective in achieving pregnancies induced by infertile men positive for antisperm antibodies. Since side-effects of corticosteroids should not be underestimated in otherwise healthy men, other reproductive techniques such as intrauterine insemination or IVF should be offered to such couples.     

The effects of alcoholism on auditory evoked potentials during sleep

Normal aging is associated with a reduction in the probability that an auditory stimulus will evoke a K-complex during sleep. Additional concomitants of aging are a reduction in the amplitude of the K-complex-related N550, an augmentation of the P2 component and the appearance of a long-lasting positivity (LLP) in the auditory evoked potential. Normal aging is also associated with a dramatic reduction in slow wave sleep (SWS) and a reduction in the volume of cortical gray matter, particularly in the frontal and prefrontal regions of the brain. As in aging, alcoholism is associated with reductions in both cortical gray matter and SWS. It can, therefore, be hypothesized that alcoholics would show similar evoked potential changes to those seen in aging. To test this hypothesis, we studied seven middle-aged abstinent long-term alcoholics and eight age-matched normal controls. Each subject spent one night in the laboratory. Electroencephalogram (EEG) was recorded from six midline scalp sites and auditory stimuli were presented during stage 2 non-rapid eye movement sleep. N550 amplitude in the K-complex average was lower in the alcoholics as compared with controls as was the likelihood of K-complex production. No differences were noted in either amplitude or latency of the P2 or N350 components, and both groups displayed a prominent LLP potential. The pattern of reduced K-complex production and N550 amplitude in alcoholics as compared with age-matched controls is consistent with an hypothesized association between atrophy of the frontal lobes and reductions in SWS and K-complexes. The finding also suggests that the evoked K-complex may be a relatively simple measure of the effect of alcoholism on EEG during sleep.     

Chronic administration of docosahexaenoic acid improves reference memory-related learning ability in young rats.

Wistar rats were fed a fish oil-deficient diet through three generations. The young (five-week-old) male rats of the third generation were randomly divided into two groups. Over 10 weeks, one group was perorally administered docosahexaenoic acid dissolved in 5% gum Arabic solution at 300 mg/kg/day; the other group received a similar volume of vehicle alone. Five weeks after starting the administration, the rats were tested for learning ability related to two types of memory, reference memory and working memory, with the partially (four of eight) baited eight-arm radial maze. Reference memory is information that should be retained until the next trial. Working memory is information that disappears in a short time. Entries into unbaited arms and repeated entries into visited arms were defined as reference memory errors and working memory errors, respectively. Docosahexaenoic acid administration over 10 weeks significantly reduced the number of reference memory errors, without affecting the number of working memory errors, and significantly increased the docosahexaenoic acid content and the docosahexaenoic acid/arachidonic acid ratio in both the hippocampus and the cerebral cortex. In addition, the ratio demonstrated a significantly negative correlation with the number of reference memory errors. These results suggest that chronic administration of docosahexaenoic acid is conducive to the improvement of reference memory-related learning ability, and that the docosahexaenoic acid/arachidonic acid ratio in the hippocampus or the cerebral cortex, or both, may be an indicator of learning ability.     

Memory evaluation of alcoholics with Russell's revised Wechsler Memory Scale

Fifty-four alcoholics and 30 nonalcoholics were tested on Russell's (1975) revision of the Wechsler Memory Scale (RWMS). Subjects were dichotomized into groups of old and young, and alcoholics were divided further into groups of short- and long-term abusers. Groups were matched on socioeconomic status. Significant group differences were found on three of the four RWMS measures as a function of abuse status and on two of the measures as a function of age. In terms of severity of impairment, alcoholics were found to demonstrate only mild verbal and figural memory deficits when compared to age-matched controls. Results are discussed with regard to the clinical utility of the RWMS as a memory screening instrument with alcoholic patients and in terms of treatment implications.     

Performance of rapid streptococcal antigen testing varies by personnel

Rapid carbohydrate antigen tests are frequently used to diagnose group A streptococcal (GAS) pharyngitis. Despite evidence of modest sensitivity in medical settings, rapid antigen tests are available to the public for self-testing. We sought to determine if the personnel performing a rapid streptococcal antigen test influence the test's performance characteristics. Throat swabs of pediatric patients performed for GAS pharyngitis in a tertiary-care children's hospital network were included during two study periods in 2004 and 2005. The performance characteristics of a rapid carbohydrate antigen test were evaluated in three clinical settings against a nucleic acid probe test method according to the personnel performing the test (laboratory technologist versus nonlaboratory personnel). Between the study periods, nonlaboratory personnel from one site underwent retraining. Subsequently, the performance characteristics of the rapid antigen test were reassessed. The sensitivity of the rapid antigen test varied widely among the different testing sites (56 to 90%). Notably, test sensitivity was consistently greater when the test was performed by laboratory technologists than when it was performed by nonlaboratory personnel (P < 0.0001). Although the rapid antigen test sensitivity significantly improved after nonlaboratory personnel at one testing site were retrained (sensitivity before versus after retraining; P < 0.0001), the sensitivity remained greater in the laboratory technologist cohort (P < 0.0001). These data confirm the important relationship of the operator performing a rapid streptococcal antigen test with the test's accuracy, even in a clinical setting, where operator training is mandated. Therefore, its use outside the medical setting by lay persons cannot be recommended without culture backup.     

Personality characteristics of adult children of alcoholics

The study examined whether eight characteristics attributed to adult children of alcoholics (ACOAs) by Woititz (1983) were supported by personality measures. The Children of Alcoholics Screening Test (CAST) and nine scales from the California Personality Inventory and the 16-PF were administered to 166 undergraduates. Forty-nine (29%) of these subjects were identified as ACOAs. ACOAS' scores on the personality measures were compared to an age- and gender-matched control group. No differences were identified between ACOA men and control men. ACOA women were found to be more flexible, impulsive, and pessimistic, with a sense of less wellbeing than control women. A significant discriminant function correctly classified 77.6% of the women subjects. This function indicated that easygoingness, independence, self-assurance, and self-directedness are associated with status as an ACOA for women.     

Reduced level of anxiety in adult Lewis rats after chronic ethanol consumption.

Many studies have shown that chronic ethanol consumption leads to a decline in learning and memory performance in rats and mice. However, other aspects of behavior have received less attention. Anxiety, for example, is known to be affected in alcoholics but has not been studied in animal models of ethanol consumption. In order to study the effects of chronic ethanol consumption on anxiety, twelve 3-month-old Lewis rats were given a 20% ethanol solution for 6 months as the only source of liquid, while a control group (n = 11) received tap water. Both groups were subjected to three different tests three weeks after cessation of treatment. Data analysis indicated that in all three tests the level of anxiety was reduced in the chronic ethanol-treated rats. Therefore, learning and memory measures, especially in aversively motivated tasks, may be confounded by differences in levels of anxiety between control and ethanol-treated rats.     

Depot testosterone with etonogestrel implants result in induction of azoospermia in all men for long-term contraception

BACKGROUND: Combined testosterone and progestogen preparations are a promising approach to male hormonal contraception. We investigated the effect of s.c. etonogestrel with depot testosterone on spermatogenesis in normal men over a period of 48 weeks. METHODS: Fifteen healthy men received three s.c. 68 mg etonogestrel implants. Testosterone pellets (400 mg) were administered at 12 weekly intervals. RESULTS: Nine men completed 48 weeks of treatment. Four subjects chose to discontinue after 6 months, one man withdrew from the study early for personal reasons and one was withdrawn due to illness. Sperm concentrations of <1 x 10(6)/ml were achieved in all men by 16 weeks of treatment. All men became azoospermic, although the time to achieve this varied from 8 to 28 weeks. Azoospermia was maintained in eight of the nine men treated for 48 weeks, one subject showing partial recovery from 40 weeks. Testosterone levels remained in the physiological range throughout. Treatment did not result in weight gain, change in body composition or decline in high-density lipoprotein cholesterol concentrations. CONCLUSIONS: The combination of three etonogestrel implants with depot testosterone results in rapid and consistent suppression of spermatogenesis. This can be maintained for up to 1 year and may therefore be a suitable approach for a long-acting male hormonal contraceptive.     

Alcoholics' self-assessment of their neuropsychological functioning in everyday life

Self-reports of impairment in everyday cognitive and perceptuomotor functioning for the 6 months that preceded treatment were investigated in 60 male, middle-aged alcoholics and for a comparable time period in 60 nonalcoholic controls matched on age, education, and Shipley Vocabulary age. Alcoholics reported significantly more everyday impairment than did controls in memory, higher cognitive functions, language skills, and perceptual-motor function. Laboratory tests of neuropsychological performance revealed that the alcoholics were significantly poorer than controls on measures of memory, higher cognitive functions, and overall neuropsychological functioning, but test performances essentially were uncorrelated with self-reported everyday impairment and with self-reported levels of depression and anxiety. However, in both groups, measures of depression and anxiety were correlated significantly with self-perception of impairment. In alcoholics, quantity-frequency of drinking (QFI) was also correlated with reported impairment; chronicity was not. Multiple regression analyses indicate that in alcoholics, both quantity-frequency measures of alcohol intake and affective distress (depression, anxiety) made independent and roughly equal contributions to reported everyday impairment; in controls, only affective distress contributed significantly.     

A single night of sleep loss impairs objective but not subjective working memory performance in a sex‐dependent manner

Acute sleep deprivation can lead to judgement errors and thereby increases the risk of accidents, possibly due to an impaired working memory. However, whether the adverse effects of acute sleep loss on working memory are modulated by auditory distraction in women and men are not known. Additionally, it is unknown whether sleep loss alters the way in which men and women perceive their working memory performance. Thus, 24 young adults (12 women using oral contraceptives at the time of investigation) participated in two experimental conditions: nocturnal sleep (scheduled between 22:30 and 06:30 hours) versus one night of total sleep loss. Participants were administered a digital working memory test in which eight‐digit sequences were learned and retrieved in the morning after each condition. Learning of digital sequences was accompanied by either silence or auditory distraction (equal distribution among trials). After sequence retrieval, each trial ended with a question regarding how certain participants were of the correctness of their response, as a self‐estimate of working memory performance. We found that sleep loss impaired objective but not self‐estimated working memory performance in women. In contrast, both measures remained unaffected by sleep loss in men. Auditory distraction impaired working memory performance, without modulation by sleep loss or sex. Being unaware of cognitive limitations when sleep‐deprived, as seen in our study, could lead to undesirable consequences in, for example, an occupational context. Our findings suggest that sleep‐deprived young women are at particular risk for overestimating their working memory performance.     

Craving for alcohol and pre-attentive processing of alcohol stimuli.

The present study was designed to test the hypothesis of unconscious attending to alcohol-related information in alcoholics experiencing a high level of craving for alcohol. Subjects included a group of alcoholics (n=34) divided by a median split on a craving measure into two groups labeled as 'high craving' (n=18) and 'low craving' (n=16) alcoholics, and a non-alcoholic control group (n=39). The cardiovascular reactions of these groups were compared after their exposure to masked and unmasked alcohol and control stimuli. As expected the 'high craving' alcoholics showed an immediate heart rate deceleration after exposure to masked and non-consciously accessible alcohol pictures. The 'high craving' alcoholics reported a small but significant increase in difficulty resisting a drink after exposure to masked alcohol pictures. When the alcohol pictures were presented unmasked a significant increase was found in both high and low craving alcoholics on consciously expressed urges, fidgeting and reduced coping with temptation to drink. The 'high craving' alcoholics had lower tonic heart rate variability compared to the control group and the level of craving was positively associated with salivation during the exposure to all picture types. The findings generally support the psychobiological theory of craving, which suggests that the uncontrollability of the craving experience is rooted in unconscious processing of drug-related information.     

Performance of alcoholic and brain-damaged subjects on the Luria memory words test

Verbal memory was evaluated in groups of 36 community controls, 50 pseudoneurological controls, 50 alcoholics, and 50 brain-damaged patients. All participants were men between the ages of 22-61. Groups did not differ in age or educational levels (F < 1). Groups were compared on their performance on the Luria Memory Words Test. Dependent variables included the number of correct words over learning trials, the trial of best performance, and the number of words recalled at three delayed trials (2, 8, and 30 min after learning). Brain-damaged subjects were inferior to community controls on all measures. Pseudoneurological controls were inferior to community controls on delayed recall, but were equivalent on measures of learning. Alcoholics were inferior to controls on measures of learning but did not differ on measures of recall. Implications regarding the underlying deficit in alcoholics' verbal memory, the use and interpretation of the Luria Memory Words test, and the use of pseudoneurological patients as controls are discussed.