湖南省农村供水设施饮水安全计划应用研究

目的探讨饮水安全计划在湖南省农村供水系统中应用的可行性及效果。方法选取一个县的12家农村水厂或供水设施调查了解供水系统中影响水质安全的因素,并在此基础上选择2家工艺流程相对比较完善的农村水厂,按照《WHO饮水水质准则》(第三版第一卷,2004年)中饮水安全计划(WSP,Water Safety Plans)的程序要求进行专题案例研究,进行危害分析和评价,并在此基础上寻找危害控制措施。结果农村供水系统中影响供水安全的关键控制点分布在从水源到用户的各个环节。WSP在农村集中式供水单位中有效地制定和执行后可明显改善和提高农村饮水水质。结论有效地制定和执行饮水安全计划可以以较低的成本最大限度的保证供水安全,从而达到保证农村集中式供水的正常运转、促进农业发展、保障农民健康的目的。WSP在我国农村乡镇自来水厂值得进一步推广和应用。     

“饮水安全计划”的应用与农村供水水质改善

WHO提出的"饮水安全计划"采用了风险管理方法的原则和概念,是供水单位管理供水安全的有用工具,有助于公共卫生管理机构的监督与管理。通过在供水单位实施"饮水安全计划",能够改善供水水质和保障水质安全,并在供水单位进行规范化管理和确保这些操作实施的严格执行。其组成包括系统评价、确定控制措施和建立系统管理计划3个主要部分,基本思想是安全的饮用水供应依赖于从源水到用户的系统控制,重点强调基于供水过程中的风险评估和风险管理机制。本文通过对饮水安全计划的回顾,主要阐述饮水安全计划的原理和应用,为其实际应用和发挥供水水质保障作用提供方法学指导。     

Water quality,compliance, and health outcomes among utilities implementing Water Safety Plans in France and Spain

Water Safety Plans (WSPs), recommended by the World Health Organization since 2004, seek to proactively identify potential risks to drinking water supplies and implement preventive barriers that improve safety. To evaluate the outcomes of WSP application in large drinking water systems in France and Spain, we undertook analysis of water quality and compliance indicators between 2003 and 2015, in conjunction with an observational retrospective cohort study of acute gastroenteritis incidence, before and after WSPs were implemented at five locations. Measured water quality indicators included bacteria (E. coli, fecal streptococci, total coliform, heterotrophic plate count), disinfectants (residual free and total chlorine), disinfection by-products (trihalomethanes, bromate), aluminum, pH, turbidity, and total organic carbon, comprising about 240 K manual samples and 1.2 M automated sensor readings. We used multiple, Poisson, or Tobit regression models to evaluate water quality before and after the WSP intervention. The compliance assessment analyzed exceedances of regulated, recommended, or operational water quality thresholds using chi-squared or Fisher’s exact tests. Poisson regression was used to examine acute gastroenteritis incidence rates in WSP-affected drinking water service areas relative to a comparison area. Implementation of a WSP generally resulted in unchanged or improved water quality, while compliance improved at most locations. Evidence for reduced acute gastroenteritis incidence following WSP implementation was found at only one of the three locations examined. Outcomes of WSPs should be expected to vary across large water utilities in developed nations, as the intervention itself is adapted to the needs of each location. The approach may translate to diverse water quality, compliance, and health outcomes.     

Development and implementation of water safety plans for small water supplies in Bangladesh: benefits and lessons learned

Water safety plans (WSPs) are promoted by the WHO as the most effective means of securing drinking water safety. To date most experience with WSPs has been within utility supplies, primarily in developed countries. There has been little documented experience of applying WSPs to small community-managed systems, particularly in developing countries. This paper presents a case study from Bangladesh describing how WSPs can be developed and implemented for small systems. Model WSPs were developed through consultation with key water sector practitioners in the country. Simplified tools were developed to translate the formal WSPs into a format that was meaningful and accessible for communities to use. A series of pilot projects were implemented by Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) across the country covering all major water supplies. The results show that WSPs can be developed and implemented for small community managed water supplies and improve the sanitary condition and water quality of water sources. Hygiene behaviour improved and household water quality showed a significant reduction in contamination. Chlorination was found to be important for some technologies, thus increasing the costs of water supply and raising important problems with respect to transfer to the communities. Simple tools for community monitoring were found to be effective in supporting better water safety management.     

Development and implementation of water safety plans for small water supplies in Bangladesh: benefits and lessons learned

Water safety plans (WSPs) are promoted by the WHO as the most effective means of securing drinking water safety. To date most experience with WSPs has been within utility supplies, primarily in developed countries. There has been little documented experience of applying WSPs to small community-managed systems, particularly in developing countries. This paper presents a case study from Bangladesh describing how WSPs can be developed and implemented for small systems. Model WSPs were developed through consultation with key water sector practitioners in the country. Simplified tools were developed to translate the formal WSPs into a format that was meaningful and accessible for communities to use. A series of pilot projects were implemented by Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) across the country covering all major water supplies. The results show that WSPs can be developed and implemented for small community managed water supplies and improve the sanitary condition and water quality of water sources. Hygiene behaviour improved and household water quality showed a significant reduction in contamination. Chlorination was found to be important for some technologies, thus increasing the costs of water supply and raising important problems with respect to transfer to the communities. Simple tools for community monitoring were found to be effective in supporting better water safety management.     

Capacity building and training approaches for water safety plans: A comprehensive literature review

The World Health Organization has recommended Water Safety Plans (WSPs), a holistic risk assessment and risk management approach, for drinking-water suppliers across low-, middle- and high-income countries, since publishing its 2004 Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality. While rapid WSP adoption has occurred, capacity is still catching up to implementation needs. Many countries and regions lack case examples, legal requirements, and training resources for WSPs, corresponding to widespread capacity shortfall in the water supply sector. We undertook a comprehensive review of the literature on capacity building and training for WSPs, with the goal of providing recommendations for multiple stakeholder groups at the scales of individual utilities, national governments, and intermediate units of governance. We propose a WSP training taxonomy and discuss it in relation to the stages of learning (introduction, practice, and reinforcement); describe the importance of customizing training to the target group, local language and circumstances; highlight the relevance of auditing for evaluating change over time; and call for robust methods to monitor WSP capacity development.     

How current risk assessment and risk management methods for drinking water in The Netherlands cover the WHO water safety plan approach

In the Netherlands, safe and sufficient drinking water is provided to the general population by ten drinking water companies. To guarantee safe drinking water the World Health Organization (WHO) developed a Water Safety Plan (WSP), a Risk Assessment and a Risk Management (RA/RM) framework. The objective of the study was to identify legally required RA approaches, to document application of RA/RM activities at Dutch drinking water companies and to determine to what extent these RA/RM activities as a whole cover all the elements of the WHO WSP approach. This study could be of interest to both managers of large water utilities and decision makers.The assessment was performed by means of a policy review and interviews with two to four staff members involved in RA/RM from all ten Dutch drinking water companies combined with a joint workshop. The drinking water companies are well aware of the potential hazards and risks that can influence the drinking water quality. To guarantee the supply of safe and sufficient drinking water, the Dutch drinking water sector uses six different legally required RA/RM approaches. This study shows that by using the six legally required RA/RM approaches, all WSP steps are covered. WSP entails a generic risk assessment for identifying all hazards and hazardous events from source to tap, whereas the six legally required RA/RM each focus on specific risks at an advanced level. Each risk assessment provides information on specific hazards and hazardous events covering a part of the water supply chain. These legal requirements are complemented with additional RA/RM activities at sector and water company level such as codes of practices and standard operating procedures. The outcomes of all RA/RM approaches combined provide information from source to tap. When using multiple RA/RM approaches, it is crucial to share and combine information derived from the different activities.     

Water safety plans: planning for adverse events and communicating with consumers

A wide range of microbial and chemical characteristics in drinking water have the potential to affect human health. However, it is not possible or practical to test drinking water for all potentially harmful characteristics. If drinking water is contaminated, people may already be exposed by the time test results are available. The 'boil water alert' issued in Sydney, Australia in 1998 following the detection of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in the finished water supply, highlighted the uncertainties associated with the public health response to test results. The Sydney experience supports the international consensus that a preventive risk-management approach to the supply of drinking water (manifesting as water safety plans (WSPs)) is the most reliable way to protect public health. A key component of a comprehensive WSP is that water suppliers and health authorities must have plans to respond in the case of water contamination and/or outbreaks. These plans must include clear guidance on when to issue warnings to consumers, and how these warnings are to be communicated. The pressure on health authorities to develop clear and systematic boil-water guidance will increase as utilities all over the world develop their WSPs.     

An international review of the challenges associated with securing buy-in for water safety plans within providers of drinking water supplies

Since publication of the 3rd Edition of the World Health Organisation (WHO) Drinking Water Quality guidelines, global adoption of water safety plans (WSPs) has been gathering momentum. Most guidance lists managerial commitment and ‘buy-in’ as critical to the success of WSP implementation; yet the detail on how to generate it is lacking. This commentary discusses aspects of managerial commitment to WSPs. We argue that the public health motivator should be clearer and a paramount objective and not lost among other, albeit legitimate, drivers such as political or regulatory pressures and financial efficiency.     

Water safety plans: planning for adverse events and communicating with consumers

A wide range of microbial and chemical characteristics in drinking water have the potential to affect human health. However, it is not possible or practical to test drinking water for all potentially harmful characteristics. If drinking water is contaminated, people may already be exposed by the time test results are available. The ‘boil water alert’ issued in Sydney, Australia in 1998 following the detection of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in the finished water supply, highlighted the uncertainties associated with the public health response to test results. The Sydney experience supports the international consensus that a preventive risk-management approach to the supply of drinking water (manifesting as water safety plans (WSPs)) is the most reliable way to protect public health. A key component of a comprehensive WSP is that water suppliers and health authorities must have plans to respond in the case of water contamination and/or outbreaks. These plans must include clear guidance on when to issue warnings to consumers, and how these warnings are to be communicated. The pressure on health authorities to develop clear and systematic boil-water guidance will increase as utilities all over the world develop their WSPs.     

2011-2014年云南省罗平县农村饮水安全工程水质 监测结果分析

摘要:目的　掌握罗平县农村饮用水安全工程水质卫生状况,为预防控制水性疾病和饮用水公共卫生事件提供可靠依据。方法　根据《云南省农村饮用水水质卫生监测技术方案》的要求,按照《生活饮用水卫生标准检验方法》（GB/T5750-2006）进行水样采集和检测,《生活饮用水卫生标准》（GB5749-2006）进行结果评价。结果　2011-2014年共检测供水点80个,各年检测20个供水点,检测水样320份,合格水样37份,合格率仅为11.6%。不合格项目主要为微生物指标,合格率枯水期为12.5%,丰水期为10.6%;合格率比较差异无统计学意义（χ2＝0.275,P＞0.05）。水源类型有地面水和地下水,其中地面水276份,地下水44份,微生物指标地面水合格率为3.3%,地下水合格率为63.6%,地下水合格率明显高于地面水（χ2＝50.833,P＜0.005）;感官性状指标地面水合格率为77.5%,地下水合格率为100.0%,差异具有统计学意义（χ2＝12.250,P＜0.005）。一般化学指标地面水合格率为92.8%,地下水合格率为100.0%,差异无统计学意义（χ2＝3.401,P＞0.05）。结论　罗平县农村饮用水微生物污染是主要的卫生问题。目前建设的农村安全饮水工程,只是改变了供水方式,供水未处理现象普遍存在,应引起有关部门的高度重视,建议加强对农村集中式供水的管理和监督。     

New perspectives in monitoring drinking water microbial quality

The safety of drinking water is evaluated by the results obtained from faecal indicators during the stipulated controls fixed by the legislation. However, drinking-water related illness outbreaks are still occurring worldwide. The failures that lead to these outbreaks are relatively common and typically involve preceding heavy rain and inadequate disinfection processes. The role that classical faecal indicators have played in the protection of public health is reviewed and the turning points expected for the future explored. The legislation for protecting the quality of drinking water in Europe is under revision, and the planned modifications include an update of current indicators and methods as well as the introduction of Water Safety Plans (WSPs), in line with WHO recommendations. The principles of the WSP approach and the advances signified by the introduction of these preventive measures in the future improvement of drinking water quality are presented. The expected impact that climate change will have in the quality of drinking water is also critically evaluated.     

湖北省应城市农村饮水安全工程现状调查与对策

目的了解应城市农村饮水安全工程现状。方法对应城市14个乡镇44个农村饮水安全工程的水质及运行状况进行了监测和调查,水质检验按GB/T 5750-2006方法,检测结果评价按GB 5749-2006、GB 3838-2002、GB 14848-1993执行。结果检测样品135份,总合格率仅为34.1%。不合格主要指标是细菌总数,大肠菌群、耐热大肠菌群、铁和锰。地下水源与地面水源样品检测合格率差异有统计学意义(χ2=5.333 1,P0.05)。结论应城市农村饮水安全工程现状令人担忧,引起介水传染病可能性大,加强农村饮水安全工程水质的卫生监管是提高农村饮水安全工程成功的关键。     

新疆昌吉市农村安全饮水工程水质现况调查

摘要:目的　了解昌吉市农村安全饮水工程水质安全与卫生状况,针对存在的问题,分析影响饮用水工程水质卫生质量的相关因素,为农村安全饮水工程水质日常维护、有效管理提供科学依据。 方法　抽取昌吉市10个乡镇中18个安全饮水工程作为调查对象,对农村安全饮水工程的出厂水、末梢水进行监测,采用国家标准进行评价。 结果　昌吉市农村安全饮水工程出厂水合格率为88.89%（32/36）,末梢水合格率86.11%（31/36）,不合格指标均为细菌微生物含量过高。 结论　昌吉市农村安全饮水工程水质卫生状况较好,主要为微生物细菌污染,有关部门应加强对安全饮水工程的监测管理,保障供水设施的正常运作、有效管理和维护。     

2010—2011年河南省安阳县农村生活饮用水现状

目的了解安阳县农村生活饮用水安全与卫生状况,为政府部门改善农村饮用水水质提供科学依据。方法调查安阳县农村居民饮水方式,依据安阳县农村人口分布,随机抽取6个乡镇,以该6个乡镇共有的12处饮水安全工程作为水质调查点,该工程周边随机抽取30处分散式供水工程作为调查点,每个调查点按照丰水期、枯水期一年采2次样,连续采2年,水样检测依据《生活饮用水标准检验方法》(GB/T 5750-2006)、结果评价依据《生活饮用水卫生标准》(GB 5749-2006)。结果饮水安全工程监测48份,合格35份,合格率72.9%;分散式供水监测120份,合格37份,合格率30.8%。不合格项目有氟化物、氯化物、硫酸盐、总硬度、溶解性总固体、菌落总数和总大肠菌群。结论安阳县农村饮水卫生状况较差,农村饮水以分散式供水工程为主,应进一步加快农村饮水安全工程的建设,完善农村饮水安全工程建后管理,落实饮水安全的各项措施。     

Incorporation of the Multiple Barrier Approach in drinking water risk assessment tools

A number of existing risk assessment tools make reference to, or incorporate, a Multiple Barrier Approach to drinking water safety. Three waterborne disease outbreaks that occurred in developed nations were used as case studies to test a selected set of risk assessment tools. The outbreaks were used to determine how well the risk assessment tools identify hazards and vulnerabilities associated with different barriers to drinking water contamination.     

定西市农村饮水安全工程水质监测分析

目的加强农村饮水安全工程卫生学评价和水质卫生监测工作,探索建立水性疾病评估、预测体系。方法 2010年对定西市7县区的农村饮水安全饮水工程水水质进行了调查监测,通过查阅资料、现场查看与调查、电话核实补充等方式,填写国家制定的统一调查表。监测内容：一是供水工程基本情况,二是水样的采集与监测,有关指标20项。结果农村安全饮水工程地面水水源占55.56%,地下水为水源的工程比例44.45%。工程设计采用地下水直供方式的比例较大,设计采用完全处理的工程比例较小,部分处理的工程比例较大。全市农村饮水安全工程的水质总体合格率为50%。结论我市农村饮水安全工程水质合格率很低,水质卫生存在着很大的问题。建议高度重视农村饮用水安全问题。     

2011年邳州市农村生活饮用水水质监测结果分析

目的掌握农村饮水水质的卫生状况,保障农村居民饮用水卫生安全。方法按照邳州市2011年农村集中式供水卫生监测工作方案的要求,对集中式供水水源63眼井进行枯水期与丰水期的出厂水、末梢水卫生监测与评价。结果 63个农村集中式供水水质枯、丰水期及出厂水末梢水均合格的51个,合格率为80.95%。不合格项目为硫酸盐、锰、细菌总数、硝酸盐、总硬度等指标。结论饮用水卫生与水源水质、水处理设施、消毒措施、安全工程管理等有关,建议实行区域供水,纳入统一管理,以确保饮水的安全。