Resistance to apoptosis in human cells conferred by telomerase function and telomere stability.

Cell senescence and programmed cell death (apoptosis) are two fundamental biological mechanisms that regulate proliferative capacity, survival potential, aging, and death of cells. Here we report several independent lines of experimental evidence that support the hypothesis that telomerase function and telomere length perform important roles in cell survival during apoptosis. First, with serum starvation and matrix-independent survival experiments, we found that young normal diploid cells were more resistant to apoptosis than their older counterparts. In addition, normal cells with stable telomere lengths caused by ectopic expression of telomerase maintained an increased resistance to serum starvation- and matrix-deprivation-induced programmed cell death compared with aged normal cells without telomerase. Second, we found that telomerase-positive immortalized SW39 cells had a higher survival ability and resistance to apoptosis than their telomerase-negative immortalized counterparts, SW13 and SW26. Third, we showed that telomerase-positive cells with experimentally elongated telomeres (GTR-IDH4 and GTR-DU145) acquired increased survival ability and higher resistance to apoptosis than the parental cell lines with shorter telomeres (IDH4 and DU145). Higher resistance to apoptosis of these cells was associated with a deficiency in two major apoptosis execution pathways: induction of nuclear calcium-dependent endonucleases and activation of the interleukin-1 beta-converting enzyme-family of proteases (caspases). Taken together, these results provide the first direct experimental evidence supporting the hypothesis that telomerase activity and maintenance of telomere stability are associated with increased cellular resistance to apoptosis.     

Senescence and telomere shortening induced by novel potent G-quadruplex interactive agents, quindoline derivatives, in human cancer cell lines

Agents stabilizing G-quadruplexes have the potential to interfere with telomere replication by blocking the elongation step catalysed by telomerase or telomerase-independent mechanism and could therefore act as antitumor agents. In this study, we found that quindoline derivatives interacted preferentially with intramolecular G-quadruplex structures and were novel potent telomerase inhibitors. Treatment with quindoline derivatives reproducibly inhibited telomerase activity in human leukemia K562 cells and colon cancer SW620 cells. N'-(10H-Indolo [3,2-b] quinolin-11-yl)-N, N-dimethyl-propane-1,3-diamine (SYUIQ-5), (one of quindoline derivatives), when added to K562 and SW620 cell culture at nonacute cytotoxic concentrations, increased time of population doublings of K562 and SW620 cells, induced a marked cessation in cell growth and cellular senescence phenotype after 35 and 18 days, respectively. Growth cessation was accompanied by a shortening of telomere length, and induction of p16, p21 and p27 protein expression. However, another compound SYUIQ-7 with greater IC(50) for telomerase had no obvious cellular effect in nonacute cytotoxic concentrations. These results indicate that quindoline derivatives as novel potent G-quadruplex interactive agents induce senescence and telomere shortening in cancer cells and therefore are promising agents for cancer treatment.     

Telomerase inhibition, telomere shortening, cell growth suppression and induction of apoptosis by telomestatin in childhood neuroblastoma cells

Neuroblastoma is a tumour derived from primitive cells of the sympathetic nervous system and is the most common extracranial solid tumour in childhood. Unfavourable tumours are characterised not only by structural changes, including 1p deletion and amplification of the MYCN proto-oncogene, but also by high telomerase activity. Telomeric G-rich single-stranded DNA can adopt in vitro an intramolecular quadruplex structure, which has been shown to inhibit telomerase activity. In this study, we examined telomestatin, a G-quadruplex interactive agent, for its ability to inhibit telomere maintenance of neuroblastoma cells. Telomere length was determined by the terminal restriction fragment method, telomerase activity was measured by a quantitative telomeric repeat amplification protocol, and the expression of human telomerase by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Short-term treatment with telomestatin resulted in dose-dependent cytotoxicity and induction of apoptosis. Long-term treatment with telomestatin at non-cytotoxic, but still telomerase activity-inhibiting, concentrations resulted in telomere shortening, growth arrest and induction of apoptosis. These results suggest that the effect of telomestatin is dose-dependent and at least 2-fold. Prolonged low-dose treatment with telomestatin limits the cellular lifespan of NB cells through disruption of telomere maintenance.     

Mutated telomeres sensitize tumor cells to anticancer drugs independently of telomere shortening and mechanisms of telomere maintenance

Telomerase is a ribonucleoprotein complex that maintains the stability of chromosome ends and regulates replicative potential. Telomerase is upregulated in over 85% of human tumors, but not in adjacent normal tissues and represents a promising target for anticancer therapy. Most telomerase-based therapies rely on the inhibition of telomerase activity and require extensive telomere shortening before inducing any antiproliferative effect. Disturbances of telomere structure rather than length may be more effective in inducing cell death. Telomerase RNA subunits (hTRs) with mutations in the template region reconstitute active holoenzymes that incorporate mutated telomeric sequences. Here, we analysed the feasibility of an anticancer approach based on the combination of telomere destabilization and conventional chemotherapeutic drugs. We show that a mutant template hTR dictates the synthesis of mutated telomeric repeats in telomerase-positive cancer cells, without significantly affecting their viability and proliferative ability. Nevertheless, the mutant hTR increased sensitivity to anticancer drugs in cells with different initial telomere lengths and mechanisms of telomere maintenance and without requiring overall telomere shortening. This report is the first to show that interfering with telomere structure maintenance in a telomerase-dependent manner may be used to increase the susceptibility of tumor cells to anticancer drugs and may lead to the development of a general therapy for the treatment of human cancers.     

端粒和端粒酶在血液系统疾病中的研究进展

端粒和端粒酶在保护和维持染色体的稳定及完整性中发挥重要作用,与很多疾病的发生密切相关,其与衰老和肿瘤的关系近年来备受关注。现介绍2016年第58届美国血液学会年会关于端粒和端粒酶在血液系统疾病中的研究进展。     

Telomere lengths and telomerase activity in dog tissues: a potential model system to study human telomere and telomerase biology

Studies on telomere and telomerase biology are fundamental to the understanding of aging and age-related diseases such as cancer. However, human studies have been hindered by differences in telomere biology between humans and the classical murine animal model system. In this paper, we describe basic studies of telomere length and telomerase activity in canine normal and neoplastic tissues and propose the dog as an alternative model system. Briefly, telomere lengths were measured in normal canine peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs), a range of normal canine tissues, and in a panel of naturally occurring soft tissue tumours by terminal restriction fragment (TRF) analysis. Further, telomerase activity was measured in canine cell lines and multiple canine tissues using a combined polymerase chain reaction/enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay method. TRF analysis in canine PBMCs and tissues demonstrated mean TRF lengths to range between 12 and 23 kbp with heterogeneity in telomere lengths being observed in a range of normal somatic tissues. In soft tissue sarcomas, two subgroups were identified with mean TRFs of 22.2 and 18.2 kbp. Telomerase activity in canine tissue was present in tumour tissue and testis with little or no activity in normal somatic tissues. These results suggest that the dog telomere biology is similar to that in humans and may represent an alternative model system for studying telomere biology and telomerase-targeted anticancer therapies.     

Anthracyclines disrupt telomere maintenance by telomerase through inducing PinX1 ubiquitination and degradation

Telomere maintenance is essential for cancer growth. Induction of telomere dysfunction, for example, by inhibition of telomeric proteins or telomerase, has been shown to strongly enhance cancer cells' sensitivity to chemotherapies. However, it is not clear whether modulations of telomere maintenance constitute cancer cellular responses to chemotherapies. Furthermore, the manner in which anti-cancer drugs affect telomere function remains unknown. In this study, we show that anthracyclines, a class of anti-cancer drugs widely used in clinical cancer treatments, have an active role in triggering telomere dysfunction specifically in telomerase-positive cancer cells. Anthracyclines interrupt telomere maintenance by telomerase through the downregulation of PinX1, a protein factor responsible for targeting telomerase onto telomeres, thereby inhibiting telomerase association with telomeres. We further demonstrate that anthracyclines downregulate PinX1 by inducing this protein degradation through the ubiquitin-proteasome-dependent pathway. Our data not only reveal a novel action for anthracyclines as telomerase functional inhibitors but also provide a clue for the development of novel anti-cancer drugs based on telomerase/telomere targeting, which is actively investigated by many current studies.     

端粒、端粒酶及端粒酶催化亚基在大肠癌中的作用

目的:探讨端粒、端粒酶活性及端粒酶催化亚基蛋白(hTERT)在大肠癌发生发展、侵袭转移中的作用。方法:应用Southern blot、端粒重复序列扩增(TRAP)和免疫组织化学方法检测端粒长度(terminal restrictionfragments,TRFs)、端粒酶活性及hTERT表达水平。结果:大肠癌TRFs明显缩短,且随大肠癌Dukes分期的进展进一步缩短;端粒酶活性及hTERT在大肠癌组织中的阳性表达率分别为83.33%及76.67%,显著高于其他组织(P<0.05);大肠癌组织端粒酶与淋巴结转移关系密切,伴淋巴结转移大肠癌组织中的端粒酶活性及hTERT阳性表达率为80%和70%,显著高于无淋巴结转移者的0%和5%(P<0.05);相关分析显示端粒酶活性与hTERT蛋白表达存在显著相关性(P<0.05)。结论:端粒的短缩及端粒酶的活化与大肠癌的发生发展密切相关,hTERT的表达对端粒酶的激活可能起着重要作用。     

Resistance to telomerase inhibition by human squamous cell carcinoma cell lines

Telomeres are nucleoprotein structures at the ends of chromosomes that are composed of a repetitive G rich sequence and telomeric binding proteins. Telomeres prevent the degradation of chromosomal ends and protect against inappropriate recombination. Telomere attrition involves a tumor suppressor pathway that limits the replication of premalignant cells. The loss of telomeric DNA with each round of replication leads to growth arrest accompanied by senescence or apoptosis. Many tumor cells activate the telomerase gene to bypass senescence. Telomerase is a multisubunit ribonucleoprotein that uses an RNA template to catalyze the addition of telomeric DNA to chromosomal ends. Overexpression of the TERT subunit leads to telomere lengthening and extension of the replicative lifespan. Dominant-negative telomerase has been shown to inhibit telomerase activity in many tumor cell lines, and this is associated with telomere shortening and apoptosis. Additionally, pharmacological telomerase inhibitors have been developed which lead to progressive telomere shortening and programmed cell death. In this study, we report a series of human squamous cell carcinoma cell lines that have high telomerase activity and short telomeres. Dominant-negative telomerase expression and pharmacological telomerase inhibition failed to completely inhibit enzymatic activity which was accompanied by the lack of telomere shortening. These cells continued to proliferate and demonstrated fewer responsive genes when treated with a pharmacological telomerase inhibitor. We concluded that some human squamous cell carcinoma cell lines are resistant to telomerase inhibition.     

Preclinical and clinical strategies for development of telomerase and telomere inhibitors

Background: Telomerase is an important enzyme whose activity has been convincingly demonstrated in humans recently. It is required for maintenance of ends of chromosomes (telomeres) during cell division. Since its presence has been selectively demonstrated in dividing cells including tumor cells, it has generated considerable excitement as a potential anti-cancer strategy.Design: In this article, we review the current relevant biology of the enzyme, the challenges encountered in the preclinical phase of target development and the current efforts that focus on telomeres and telomerase as therapeutic targets. We also speculate on the potential toxicities and mechanisms of resistance that may be encountered during use of such therapies.     

Apoptosis related to telomere instability and cell cycle alterations in human glioma cells treated by new highly selective G-quadruplex ligands

Telomerase represents a relevant target for cancer therapy. Molecules able to stabilize the G-quadruplex (G4), a structure adopted by the 3'-overhang of telomeres, are thought to inhibit telomerase by blocking its access to telomeres. We investigated the cellular effects of four new 2,6-pyridine-dicarboxamide derivatives displaying strong selectivity for G4 structures and strong inhibition of telomerase in in vitro assays. These compounds inhibited cell proliferation at very low concentrations and then induced a massive apoptosis within a few days in a dose-dependent manner in cultures of three telomerase-positive glioma cell lines, T98G, CB193 and U118-MG. They had also antiproliferative effects in SAOS-2, a cell line in which telomere maintenance involves an alternative lengthening of telomeres (ALT) mechanism. We show that apoptosis was preceded by multiple alterations of the cell cycle: activation of S-phase checkpoints, dramatic increase of metaphase duration and cytokinesis defects. These effects were not associated with telomere shortening, but they were directly related to telomere instability involving telomere end fusion and anaphase bridge formation. Pyridine-based G-quadruplex ligands are therefore promising agents for the treatment of various tumors including malignant gliomas.     

人喉鳞癌细胞端粒长度、端粒酶活性与放射敏感性的关系

背景与目的:肿瘤细胞的端粒长度、端粒酶活性与其增殖能力和恶性程度关系密切,而且端粒和端粒酶还可能参与放射诱导的DNA损伤的修复;由此推测肿瘤细胞的端粒长度、端粒酶活性与放射敏感性之间可能存在联系。本研究旨在探讨人喉鳞癌细胞端粒长度、端粒酶活性与放射敏感性的关系。方法:体外长期传代的人喉鳞癌细胞系Hep鄄2经0、2、4、8、12Gy剂量照射3次后的存活后代体外培养20代,以克隆形成实验测定其放射敏感性参数SF2,Southernblot法测定其端粒长度(meanlengthoftelomererestrictionfragments,TRF),TRAP鄄ELISA法测定其端粒酶活性(telomeraseactivity,TA)。结果:人喉鳞癌细胞不同放射剂量存活后代的SF2:0.47～0.64,TRF:3.76～9.43kb,TA:2.606～1.761,且它们各自的SF2、TRF、TA存在差异(P均<0.05);而且,SF2与TRF呈现明显的正相关(r=0.921,P<0.01),SF2与TA呈现明显的负相关(r=-0.929,P<0.01),TRF与TA呈现明显的负相关(r=-0.944,P<0.01)。结论:人喉鳞癌细胞接受不同放射剂量存活后代的放射敏感性与其端粒长度和端粒酶活性具有一定的相关性,提示端粒长度与端粒酶活性检测对预测肿瘤细胞放射敏感性有一定意义。     

Modulation of telomere shelterin by TRF1 [corrected] and TRF2 interacts with telomerase to maintain the telomere length in non-small cell lung cancer

Our previous report demonstrated good correlations between the expressions of h-TERT and its associated genes, such as c-Myc, TRF1 and TRF2. To observe the interaction between telomerase activity and expression of its associated genes in regulation of the telomere restriction fragment length (TRFL) in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), 79 NSCLC specimens were examined. Telomerase activity, h-TERT, TRF1 and TRF2 genes expression were observed in 60.8, 66.7, 74.7, and 83.5% of the tumour tissues, respectively. The TRFL were shorter in both tumour tissues and telomerase positive tissues, as compared to their counterparts. The t/n-TRFLR (tumour-to-normal TRFL ratio) was also lower in telomerase positive tissues. When telomerase was negative, the t/n-TRFLR was lower in both TRF1 positive and TFR2 positive. However, when telomerase was positive, the t/n-TRFLR was only lower in the TFR2 positive group. When t/n-TRFLR level was equal to or less than 75%, the majority of the specimens became TRF1 and TRF2 positive. To explain these findings, our hypothesis is that when the TRF length becomes shorter during tumour progression, the tumour cells can sustain a better tolerance to shorter telomere with the help of both TRF1 and TRF2, but without immediate activation of the telomerase. However, when the TRF length reaches a critical level, changing the telomere shelterin by persistent expression of the TRF2, which in combination with telomerase activation reverses the telomere shortening.     

端粒、端粒酶及其亚单位在鼻咽癌中相互作用的研究

 目的　探讨端粒、端粒酶及其亚单位在鼻咽癌发病中的作用。方法　采用Southern杂交等分子生物学方法对鼻咽癌端粒、端粒酶及其亚单位进行检测。结果　鼻咽癌平均端粒长度 (MTL)为 4 .5± 2 .3kb ,端粒酶阳性表达为 88.0 %～ 10 0 %。对照组MTL分别为 14 .6± 2 .8Kb和 15 .8± 3.8Kb ,癌旁组织端粒酶阳性表达为 6 4.7% ,对照组为 0～ 8.7%。此外 ,端粒酶活性增高与晚期鼻咽癌及其颈淋巴结转移也有密切关系。结论　端粒及端粒酶与鼻咽癌的发生、发展及转移可能有密切关系     

Repression of the telomerase catalytic subunit by a gene on human chromosome 3 that induces cellular senescence

The cellular senescence program is controlled by multiple genetic pathways, one of which involves the regulation of telomerase and telomere shortening. The introduction of a normal human chromosome 3 into the human renal cell carcinoma cell line RCC23 caused repression of telomerase activity, progressive shortening of telomeres, and restoration of the cellular senescence program. We attributed the repression of telomerase activity to the marked downregulation of the gene encoding the catalytic subunit of telomerase (hEST2/hTRT) but not another protein component (TP1/TLP1) or the RNA component of telomerase. These results suggest that a senescence-inducing gene on chromosome 3 controls hEST2/hTRT gene expression either directly or indirectly and support the notion that hEST2/hTRT is the major determinant of telomerase enzymatic activity in human cells. Mol. Carcinog. 22:65–72, 1998. © 1998 Wiley-Liss, Inc. This article is a US Government work and, as such, is in the public domain in the United States of America.