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1.
Andr Van Gossum Eduard Cabre Xavier Hbuterne Palle Jeppesen Zeljko Krznaric Bernard Messing Jeremy Powell-Tuck Michael Staun Jeremy Nightingale 《Clinical nutrition (Edinburgh, Scotland)》2009,28(4):415
Undernutrition as well as specific nutrient deficiencies has been described in patients with Crohn's disease (CD), ulcerative colitis (UC) and short bowel syndrome. In the latter, water and electrolytes disturbances may be a major problem.The present guidelines provide evidence-based recommendations for the indications, application and type of parenteral formula to be used in acute and chronic phases of illness.Parenteral nutrition is not recommended as a primary treatment in CD and UC. The use of parenteral nutrition is however reliable when oral/enteral feeding is not possible.There is a lack of data supporting specific nutrients in these conditions.Parenteral nutrition is mandatory in case of intestinal failure, at least in the acute period.In patients with short bowel, specific attention should be paid to water and electrolyte supplementation. Currently, the use of growth hormone, glutamine and GLP-2 cannot be recommended in patients with short bowel.
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Summary of statements: Parenteral nutrition in Crohn's disease | |||
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Subject | Recommendations | Grade | Number |
Indication | PN is indicated for patients who are malnourished or at risk of becoming malnourished and who have an inadequate or unsafe oral intake, a non (or poorly) functioning or perforated gut, or in whom the gut is inaccessible. Specific reasons in patients with CD include an obstructed gut, a short bowel, often with a high intestinal output or an enterocutaneous fistula. | B | 4.1 |
Active disease | Parenteral nutrition (PN) should not be used as a primary treatment of inflammatory luminal CD. | A | 3.5 |
Bowel rest has not been proven to be more efficacious than nutrition per se. | |||
Maintenance of remission | In case of persistent intestinal inflammation there is rarely a place for long-term PN. | B | 3.7 |
The most common indication for long-term PN is the presence of a short bowel. | |||
Perioperative | Use of PN in the perioperative period in CD patients is similar to that of other surgical procedures. | B | 3.6 |
Application | When indicated, PN improves nutritional status and reduces the consequences of undernutrition, providing there is not continuing intra-abdominal sepsis | B | 1 |
Specific deficits (trace elements, vitamins) should be corrected by appropriate supplementation. | B | 1 | |
The use of PN in patients with CD should follow general recommendations for parenteral nutrition. | B | 1 | |
Route | Parenteral nutrition is usually combined with oral/enteral food unless there is continuing intra-abdominal sepsis or perforation. Central and peripheral routes may be selected according to the expected duration of PN | C | 3.2 |
Type of formula | Although there are encouraging experimental data, the present clinical studies are insufficient to permit the recommendation of glutamine, n-3 fatty acids or other pharmaconutrients in CD. | B | 4.3 |
Undernutrition | Parenteral nutrition may improve the quality of life in undernourished CD patients. | C | 3.4 |
Summary of statements: PN in ulcerative colitis | |||
Subject | Recommendations | Grade | Number |
Indication | Parenteral nutrition should only be used in patients with UC who are malnourished or at risk of becoming malnourished before or after surgery if they cannot tolerate food or an enteral feed | B | 9 |
Active disease | There is no place for PN in acute inflammatory UC as means of enabling bowel rest. | B | 10 |
Maintenance of remission | Parenteral nutrition is not recommended. | B | 11 |
Application | Treat specific deficiencies when oral route is not possible. | C | 5 |
Type of formula | The value of specific substrates (n-3 fatty acids, glutamine) is not proven. | B | 10.2 |
Summary of statements: Short bowel syndrome (intestinal failure) | |||
Subject | Recommendations | Grade | Number |
Indication | Maintenance and/or improvement of nutritional status, correction of water and electrolyte balance, improvement in quality of life. | B | 15 |
Route | |||
Post-op period | Predictions on the route of nutritional support needed can be made from knowledge of the remaining length of small bowel and the presence or absence of the colon. PN is likely to be needed if the remaining small bowel length is very short (e.g., less than 100 cm with a jejunostomy and less than 50 cm with a remaining colon in continuity). With longer lengths parenteral nutrition, water and electrolytes may be needed until oral/enteral intake is adequate to maintain nutrition, water and electrolyte status. | B | 17.1 |
Adaptation phase | Patients with a jejunostomy have little change in their nutritional/fluid requirements with time. Patients with a colon in continuity with the small bowel have an improvement in absorption over 1–3 years and parenteral nutrition can often be reduced or stopped. | B | 17.2 |
Dietary counseling is important for those with a retained colon and may facilitate intestinal adaptation. In patients with a jejunostomy and a high output stoma advice on oral fluid intake and drug treatments are vital. | |||
Maintenance/Stabilization | Parenteral nutrition, water and electrolytes (especially sodium and magnesium should be continued when oral/enteral intake is insufficient to maintain a normal body weight/hydration or when the intestinal/stool output is so great as to severely reduce the patient's quality of life. Assuming strict compliance with dietary/water and electrolyte advice, after 2 years, dependency on PN is likely to be long-term. | B | 17.3 |
Type of formula | No specific substrate composition of PN is required per se. | B | 16 |
Specific attention should be paid to electrolyte supplementation (especially sodium and magnesium). | B | 16, 17 | |
Currently, the use of growth hormone, glutamine or GLP-2 cannot be recommended. | B | 18 |
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2.
ESPEN Guidelines on Parenteral Nutrition: Hepatology 总被引:2,自引:0,他引:2
Mathias Plauth Eduard Cabr Bernard Campillo Jens Kondrup Giulio Marchesini Tatjana Schütz Alan Shenkin Julia Wendon 《Clinical nutrition (Edinburgh, Scotland)》2009,28(4):436
Parenteral nutrition (PN) offers the possibility to increase or to ensure nutrient intake in patients, in whom sufficient nutrition by oral or enteral alone is insufficient or impossible. Complementary to the ESPEN guideline on enteral nutrition of liver disease (LD) patients the present guideline is intended to give evidence-based recommendations for the use of PN in LD. For this purpose three paradigm conditions of LD were chosen: alcoholic steatohepatitis (ASH), liver cirrhosis and acute liver failure. The guideline was developed by an interdisciplinary expert group in accordance with officially accepted standards and is based on all relevant publications since 1985. The guideline was presented on the ESPEN website and visitors' criticism and suggestions were welcome and included in the final revision. PN improves nutritional state and liver function in malnourished patients with ASH. PN is safe and improves mental state in patients with cirrhosis and severe HE. Perioperative (including liver transplantation) PN is safe and reduces the rate of complications. In acute liver failure PN is a safe second-line option to adequately feed patients in whom enteral nutrition is insufficient or impossible.
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Summary of statements: Alcoholic Steatohepatitis | |||
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Subject | Recommendations | Grade | Number |
General | Use simple bedside methods such as the Subjective Global Assessment (SGA) or anthropometry to identify patients at risk of undernutrition. | C | 1 |
Start PN immediately in moderately or severely malnourished ASH patients, who cannot be fed sufficiently either orally or enterally. | A | 1 | |
Give i.v. glucose (2–3 g kg−1 d−1) when patients have to abstain from food for more than 12 h. | C | 1 | |
Give PN when the fasting period lasts longer than 72 h. | C | 1 | |
Energy | Provide energy to cover 1.3 × REE | C | 2 |
Give glucose to cover 50–60 % of non-protein energy requirements. | C | 3 | |
Use lipid emulsions with a content of n-6 unsaturated fatty acids lower than in traditional pure soybean oil emulsions. | C | 3 | |
Amino acids | Provide amino acids at 1.2–1.5 g kg−1 d−1. | C | 3 |
Micronutrients | Give water soluble vitamins and trace elements daily from the first day of PN. | C | 3 |
Administer vitamin B1 prior to starting glucose infusion to reduce the risk of Wernicke's encephalopathy. | C | 3 | |
Monitoring | Employ repeat blood sugar determinations in order to detect hypoglycemia and to avoid PN related hyperglycemia. | C | 6 |
Monitor phosphate, potassium and magnesium levels when refeeding malnourished patients. | C | 3 | |
Summary of statements: Liver Cirrhosis | |||
Subject | Recommendations | Grade | Number |
General | Use simple bedside methods such as the Subjective Global Assessment (SGA) or anthropometry to identify patients at risk of undernutrition. | C | 4 |
Start PN immediately in moderately or severely malnourished cirrhotic patients, who cannot be fed sufficiently either orally or enterally. | A | 4 | |
Give i.v. glucose (2–3 g kg−1 d−1) when patients have to abstain from food for more than 12 h. | C | 4 | |
Give PN when the fasting period lasts longer than 72 h. | C | 4 | |
Consider PN in patients with unprotected airways and encephalopathy when cough and swallow reflexes are compromised. | C | 4 | |
Use early postoperative PN if patients cannot be nourished sufficiently by either oral or enteral route. | A | 4 | |
After liver transplantation, use early postoperative nutrition; PN is second choice to EN. | C | 4 | |
Energy | Provide energy to cover 1.3 x REE | C | 5 |
Give glucose to cover 50 % - 60 % of non-protein energy requirements. | C | 6 | |
Reduce glucose infusion rate to 2–3 g kg−1 d−1 in case of hyperglycemia and use consider the use of i.v. insulin. | C | 6 | |
Use lipid emulsions with a content of n-6 unsaturated fatty acids lower than in traditional pure soybean oil emulsions. | C | 6 | |
Amino acids | Provide amino acids at 1.2–1.5 g kg−1 d−1. | C | 7 |
In encephalopathy III° or IV°, consider the use of solutions rich in BCAA and low in AAA, methionine and tryptophane. | A | 7 | |
Micronutrients | Give water soluble vitamins and trace elements daily from the first day of PN. | C | 8 |
In alcoholic liver disease, administer vitamin B1 prior to starting glucose infusion to reduce the risk of Wernicke's encephalopathy. | C | 3, 8 | |
Monitoring | Employ repeat blood sugar determinations in order to avoid PN related hyperglycemia. | A | 6 |
Monitor phosphate, potassium and magnesium levels when refeeding malnourished patients. | C | 8 | |
Summary of statements: Acute Liver Failure | |||
Subject | Recommendations | Grade | Number |
General | Commence artificial nutrition when patient is unlikely to resume normal oral nutrition within the next 5–7 days. | C | 9 |
Use PN when patients cannot be fed adequately by EN. | C | 9 | |
Energy | Provide energy to cover 1.3 × REE. | C | 10 |
Consider using indirect calorimetry to measure individual energy expenditure. | C | 10 | |
Give i.v. glucose (2–3 g kg−1 d−1) for prophylaxis or treatment of hypoglycaemia. | C | 11 | |
In case of hyperglycaemia, reduce glucose infusion rate to 2–3 g kg−1 d−1 and consider the use of i.v. insulin. | C | 11, 6 | |
Consider using lipid (0.8 – 1.2 g kg−1 d−1) together with glucose to cover energy needs in the presence of insulin resistance. | C | 11 | |
Amino acids | In acute or subacute liver failure, provide amino acids at 0.8–1.2 g kg−1 d−1. | C | 11 |
Monitoring | Employ repeat blood sugar determinations in order to detect hypoglycaemia and to avoid PN related hyperglycaemia. | C | 11 |
Employ repeat blood ammonia determinations in order to adjust amino acid provision. | C | 11 |
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3.
4.
L. Sobotka S.M. Schneider Y.N. Berner T. Cederholm Z. Krznaric A. Shenkin Z. Stanga G. Toigo M. Vandewoude D. Volkert 《Clinical nutrition (Edinburgh, Scotland)》2009,28(4):461
Older subjects are at increased risk of partial or complete loss of independence due to acute and/or chronic disease and often of concomitant protein caloric malnutrition. Nutritional care and support should be an indispensable part of their management. Enteral nutrition is always the first choice for nutrition support. However, when patients cannot meet their nutritional requirements adequately via the enteral route, parenteral nutrition (PN) is indicated.PN is a safe and effective therapeutic procedure and age per se is not a reason to exclude patients from this treatment. The use of PN should always be balanced against a realistic chance of improvement in the general condition of the patient. Lower glucose tolerance, electrolyte and micronutrient deficiencies and lower fluid tolerance should be assumed in older patients treated by PN. Parenteral nutrition can be administered either via peripheral or central veins. Subcutaneous administration is also a possible solution for basic hydration of moderately dehydrated subjects. In the terminal, demented or dying patient the use of PN or hydration should only be given in accordance with other palliative treatments.
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Summary of statements: Geriatrics | |||
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Subject | Recommendations | Grade | Number |
Indications | Age per se is not a reason to exclude patients from PN. | C [IV] | 1.1. |
PN is indicated and may allow adequate nutrition in patients who cannot meet their nutritional requirements via the enteral route. | C [IV] | 1.1. | |
PN support should be instituted in the older person facing a period of starvation of more than 3 days or if intake is likely to be insufficient for more than 7–10 days, and when oral or enteral nutrition is impossible. | C [IV] | 1.1. | |
Pharmacological sedation or physical restraining to make PN possible is not justified. | C [IV] | 1.1. | |
PN is a useful and effective method of nutritional support in older persons but compared to EN and oral nutritional supplements are much less often justified. | B [III] | 1.2. | |
Metabolic/physiological features in older subjects | Insulin resistance and hyperglycaemia together with impairment of cardiac and renal function are the most relevant features. They may warrant the use of formulae with higher lipid content. | C [IV] | 2 |
Deficiencies in vitamins, trace elements and minerals should be suspected in older subjects. | B [IIb] | 2 | |
The effect of nutritional support on restoration of depleted body cell mass is lower in elderly patients than in younger subjects. The oxidation capacity for lipid emulsions is not negatively influenced by age. | B [IIa] | 2 | |
Peripheral PN | Both central and peripheral nutrition can be used in geriatric patients. | C [IV] | 3 |
Osmolarity of peripheral parenteral nutrition should not be higher than 850 mOsmol/l. | B [III] | 3 | |
Subcutaneous fluid administration | The subcutaneous route is possible for fluid administration in order to correct mild to moderate dehydration but not to meet other nutrient requirements. | A [Ia] | 4 |
PN and nutritional status | PN can improve nutritional status in older as well as in younger adults. However, active physical rehabilitation is essential for muscle gain. | B [IIb] | 5 |
Functional status | PN can support improvement of functional status, but the margin of improvement is lower than in younger patients. | C [IV] | 6 |
Morbidity and mortality | PN can reduce mortality and morbidity in older as well as in middle-aged subjects. | C [IV] | 7 |
Length of hospital stay | No studies have assessed length of hospital stay in older patients on PN. | 8 | |
Quality of life | Long-term parenteral nutrition does not influence quality of life of older patients more negatively than it does in younger subjects. | C [IV] | 9 |
Specific complications | There are no specific complications of PN in geriatric patients compared to other ages, but complications tend to be more frequent due to associated comorbidities. | C [IV] | 10 |
Specific situations | Indications for PN are similar in younger and older adults in the hospital and at home. | B [III] | 11 |
Ethical problems | PN or parenteral hydration should be considered as medical treatments rather than as basic care. Therefore their use should be balanced against a realistic chance of improvement in the general condition. | C [IV] | 12 |
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5.
ESPEN Guidelines on Parenteral Nutrition: Non-surgical oncology 总被引:1,自引:0,他引:1
F. Bozzetti J. Arends K. Lundholm A. Micklewright G. Zurcher M. Muscaritoli 《Clinical nutrition (Edinburgh, Scotland)》2009,28(4):445
Parenteral nutrition offers the possibility of increasing or ensuring nutrient intake in patients in whom normal food intake is inadequate and enteral nutrition is not feasible, is contraindicated or is not accepted by the patient.These guidelines are intended to provide evidence-based recommendations for the use of parenteral nutrition in cancer patients. They were developed by an interdisciplinary expert group in accordance with accepted standards, are based on the most relevant publications of the last 30 years and share many of the conclusions of the ESPEN guidelines on enteral nutrition in oncology.Under-nutrition and cachexia occur frequently in cancer patients and are indicators of poor prognosis and, per se, responsible for excess morbidity and mortality. Many indications for parenteral nutrition parallel those for enteral nutrition (weight loss or reduction in food intake for more than 7–10 days), but only those who, for whatever reason cannot be fed orally or enterally, are candidates to receive parenteral nutrition. A standard nutritional regimen may be recommended for short-term parenteral nutrition, while in cachectic patients receiving intravenous feeding for several weeks a high fat-to-glucose ratio may be advised because these patients maintain a high capacity to metabolize fats. The limited nutritional response to the parenteral nutrition reflects more the presence of metabolic derangements which are characteristic of the cachexia syndrome (or merely the short duration of the nutritional support) rather than the inadequacy of the nutritional regimen. Perioperative parenteral nutrition is only recommended in malnourished patients if enteral nutrition is not feasible. In non-surgical well-nourished oncologic patients routine parenteral nutrition is not recommended because it has proved to offer no advantage and is associated with increased morbidity. A benefit, however, is reported in patients undergoing hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Short-term parenteral nutrition is however commonly accepted in patients with acute gastrointestinal complications from chemotherapy and radiotherapy, and long-term (home) parenteral nutrition will sometimes be a life-saving maneuver in patients with sub acute/chronic radiation enteropathy. In incurable cancer patients home parenteral nutrition may be recommended in hypophagic/(sub)obstructed patients (if there is an acceptable performance status) if they are expected to die from starvation/under nutrition prior to tumor spread.
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Summary of statements: Non-surgical Oncology | |||
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Subject | Recommendations | Grade | Number |
Nutritional status | Nutritional assessment of all cancer patients should begin with tumor diagnosis and be repeated at every visit in order to initiate nutritional intervention early, before the general status is severely compromised and chances to restore a normal condition are few | C | 1.1 |
Total daily energy expenditure in cancer patients may be assumed to be similar to healthy subjects, or 20–25 kcal/kg/day for bedridden and 25–30 kcal/kg/day for ambulatory patients | C | 1.4 | |
The majority of cancer patients requiring PN for only a short period of time do not need a special formulation. Using a higher than usual percentage of lipid (e.g. 50% of non-protein energy), may be beneficial for those with frank cachexia needing prolonged PN (Grade C) | C | 1.5 | |
Indications | Therapeutic goals for PN in cancer patients are the improvement of function and outcome by: | C | 2.1 |
• preventing and treating under-nutrition/cachexia, | |||
• enhancing compliance with anti-tumor treatments, | |||
• controlling some adverse effects of anti-tumor therapies, | |||
• improving quality of life | |||
PN is ineffective and probably harmful in non-aphagic oncological patients in whom there is no gastrointestinal reason for intestinal failure | A | 2.1 | |
PN is recommended in patients with severe mucositis or severe radiation enteritis | C | 2.1 | |
Nutritional provision | Supplemental PN is recommended in patients if inadequate food and enteral intake (<60% of estimated energy expenditure) is anticipated for more than 10 days | C | 2.2 |
PN is not recommended if oral/enteral nutrient intake is adequate | A | 2.2 | |
In the presence of systemic inflammation it appears to be extremely difficult to achieve whole body protein anabolism in cancer patients. In this situation, in addition to nutritional interventions, pharmacological efforts are recommended to modulate the inflammatory response | C | 2.3 | |
Preliminary data suggest a potential positive role of insulin (Grade C). There are no data on n-3 fatty acids | C | 2.4 | |
Peri-operative care | Peri-operative PN is recommended in malnourished candidates for artificial nutrition, when EN is not possible | A | 3.1 |
Peri-operative PN should not be used in the well-nourished | A | 3.1 | |
During non-surgical therapy | The routine use of PN during chemotherapy, radiotherapy or combined therapy is not recommended | A | 3.2 |
If patients are malnourished or facing a period longer than one week of starvation and enteral nutritional support is not feasible, PN is recommended | C | 3.2 | |
Incurable patients | In intestinal failure, long-term PN should be offered, if (1) enteral nutrition is insufficient, (2) expected survival due to tumor progression is longer than 2–3 months),(3) it is expected that PN can stabilize or improve performance status and quality of life, and (4) the patient desires this mode of nutritional support | C | 3.3 |
There is probable benefit in supporting incurable cancer patients with weight loss and reduced nutrient intake with “supplemental” PN | B | 3.4 | |
Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) | In HSCT patients PN should be reserved for those with severe mucositis, ileus, or intractable vomiting | B | 3.5 |
No clear recommendation can be made as to the time of introduction of PN in HSCT patients. Its withdrawal should be considered when patients are able to tolerate approximately 50% of their requirements enterally | C | 3.6 | |
HSCT patients may benefit from glutamine-supplemented PN | B | 3.7 | |
Tumor growth | Although PN supplies nutrients to the tumor, there is no evidence that this has deleterious effects on the outcome. This consideration should therefore have no influence on the decision to feed a cancer patient when PN is clinically indicated | C | 4.1 |
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6.
Mauro Pittiruti Helen Hamilton Roberto Biffi John MacFie Marek Pertkiewicz 《Clinical nutrition (Edinburgh, Scotland)》2009,28(4):365
When planning parenteral nutrition (PN), the proper choice, insertion, and nursing of the venous access are of paramount importance. In hospitalized patients, PN can be delivered through short-term, non-tunneled central venous catheters, through peripherally inserted central catheters (PICC), or – for limited period of time and with limitation in the osmolarity and composition of the solution – through peripheral venous access devices (short cannulas and midline catheters). Home PN usually requires PICCs or – if planned for an extended or unlimited time – long-term venous access devices (tunneled catheters and totally implantable ports).The most appropriate site for central venous access will take into account many factors, including the patient's conditions and the relative risk of infective and non-infective complications associated with each site. Ultrasound-guided venepuncture is strongly recommended for access to all central veins. For parenteral nutrition, the ideal position of the catheter tip is between the lower third of the superior cava vein and the upper third of the right atrium; this should preferably be checked during the procedure.Catheter-related bloodstream infection is an important and still too common complication of parenteral nutrition. The risk of infection can be reduced by adopting cost-effective, evidence-based interventions such as proper education and specific training of the staff, an adequate hand washing policy, proper choices of the type of device and the site of insertion, use of maximal barrier protection during insertion, use of chlorhexidine as antiseptic prior to insertion and for disinfecting the exit site thereafter, appropriate policies for the dressing of the exit site, routine changes of administration sets, and removal of central lines as soon as they are no longer necessary.Most non-infective complications of central venous access devices can also be prevented by appropriate, standardized protocols for line insertion and maintenance. These too depend on appropriate choice of device, skilled implantation and correct positioning of the catheter, adequate stabilization of the device (preferably avoiding stitches), and the use of infusion pumps, as well as adequate policies for flushing and locking lines which are not in use.
Summary of statements: Central Venous Catheters | |||
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Subject | Recommendations | Grade | Number |
Choice of route for intravenous nutrition | Central venous access (i.e., venous access which allows delivery of nutrients directly into the superior vena cava or the right atrium) is needed in most patients who are candidates for parenteral nutrition (PN). | C | 1 |
In some situations however PN may be safely delivered by peripheral access (short cannula or midline catheter), as when using a solution with low osmolarity, with a substantial proportion of the non-protein calories given as lipid. | |||
It is recommended that peripheral PN (given through a short peripheral cannula or through a midline catheter) should be used only for a limited period of time, and only when using nutrient solutions whose osmolarity does not exceed 850 mOsm/L. | |||
Home PN should not normally be given via short cannulas as these carry a high risk of dislocation and complications. | |||
Peripheral PN, whether through short cannulas or midline catheters, demands careful surveillance for thrombophlebitis. | |||
Choice of PN catheter device | Short-term: many non-tunneled central venous catheters (CVCs), as well as peripherally inserted central catheters (PICCs), and peripheral catheters are suitable for in-patient PN. | B | 2 |
Medium-term: PICCs, Hohn catheters, and tunneled catheters and ports are appropriate. Non-tunneled central venous catheters are discouraged in HPN, because of high rates of infection, obstruction, dislocation, and venous thrombosis. | |||
Prolonged use and HPN (>3 months) usually require a long-term device. There is a choice between tunneled catheters and totally implantable devices. In those requiring frequent (daily) access a tunneled device is generally preferable. | |||
Choice of vein for PN | The choice of vein is affected by several factors including venepuncture technique, the risk of related mechanical complications, the feasibility of appropriate nursing of the catheter site, and the risk of thrombotic and infective complications. | C | 3 |
The use of the femoral vein for PN is relatively contraindicated, since this is associated with a high risk of contamination at the exit site in the groin, and a high risk of venous thrombosis. | |||
High approaches to the internal jugular vein (either anterior or posterior to the sternoclavicular muscle) are not recommended, since the exit site is difficult to nurse, and there is thus a high risk of catheter contamination and catheter-related infection. | |||
Insertion of CVCs | There is compelling evidence that ultrasound-guided venepuncture (by real-time ultrasonography) is associated with a lower incidence of complications and a higher rate of success than ‘blind’ venepuncture. Ultrasound support is therefore strongly recommended for all CVC insertions. Placement by surgical cutdown is not recommended, in terms of cost-effectiveness and risk of infection. | A | 4 |
In placement of PICCs, percutaneous cannulation of the basilic vein or the brachial vein in the midarm, utilizing ultrasound guidance and the micro-introducer technique, is the preferred option | B | 4 | |
Position of CVC tip | High osmolarity PN requires central venous access and should be delivered through a catheter whose tip is in the lower third of the superior vena cava, at the atrio-caval junction, or in the upper portion of the right atrium (Grade A). The position of the tip should preferably be checked during the procedure, especially when an infraclavicular approach to the subclavian vein has been used. | C, B | 5 |
Postoperative X-ray is mandatory (a) when the position of the tip has not been checked during the procedure, and/or (b) when the device has been placed using blind subclavian approach or other techniques which carry the risk of pleuropulmonary damage. | |||
Choice of material for CVC | There is limited evidence to suggest that the catheter material is important in the etiology of catheter-related sepsis. Teflon, silicone and polyurethane (PUR) have been associated with fewer infections than polyvinyl chloride or polyethylene. Currently all available CVCs are made either of PUR (short-term and medium-term) or silicone (medium-term and long-term); no specific recommendation for clinical practice is made. | B | 6 |
Reducing the risk of catheter-related infection | Evidence indicates that the risk of catheter-related infection is reduced by:
| B | 6 |
Diagnosis of catheter-related sepsis | Diagnosis of CRBSI is best achieved (a) by quantitative or semi-quantitative culture of the catheter (when the CVC is removed or exchanged over a guide wire), or (b) by paired quantitative blood cultures or paired qualitative blood cultures from a peripheral vein and from the catheter, with continuously monitoring of the differential time to positivity (if the catheter is left in place). | A | 7 |
Treatment of catheter-related sepsis (short-term lines) | A short-term central line should be removed in the case of (a) evident signs of local infection at the exit site, (b) clinical signs of sepsis, (c) positive culture of the catheter exchanged over guide wire, or (d) positive paired blood cultures (from peripheral blood and blood drawn from the catheter). Appropriate antibiotic therapy should be continued after catheter removal. | B | 8 |
Treatment of catheter-related sepsis (long-term lines) | Removal of the long-term venous access is required in case of (a) tunnel infection or port abscess, (b) clinical signs of septic shock, (c) paired blood cultures positive for fungi or highly virulent bacteria, and/or (d) complicated infection (e.g., evidence of endocarditis, septic thrombosis, or other metastatic infections). In other cases, an attempt to save the device may be tried, using the antibiotic lock technique. | B | 9 |
Routine care of central catheters | Most central venous access devices for PN can be safely flushed and locked with saline solution when not in use. | C | 10 |
Heparinized solutions may be used as a lock (after flushing with saline), when recommended by the manufacturer, in the case of implanted ports or opened-ended catheter lumens which are scheduled to remain closed for more than 8 h. | |||
Prevention of line occlusion | Intraluminal obstruction of the central venous access can be prevented by appropriate nursing protocols in maintenance of the line, including the use of nutritional pumps. | C | 11 |
Prevention of catheter-related central venous thrombosis | Thrombosis is avoided by the use of insertion techniques designed to limit damage to the vein, including
| B | 12 |
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Keywords: Guidelines; Evidence-based; Clinical practice; Parenteral nutrition; Central venous access; Venous access devices; Midline catheters; PICC; Central venous catheters; Totally implantable ports; Tunneled catheters; Peripheral parenteral nutrition; Home parenteral nutrition; Ultrasound guidance; Catheter-related bloodstream infection; Needle-free connectors; Chlorhexidine; Antibiotic lock therapy; Exchange over guide wire; Heparin lock; Sutureless securing devices; Catheter-related venous thrombosis; Pinch-off syndrome; Fibrin sleeve 相似文献
7.
M. Braga O. Ljungqvist P. Soeters K. Fearon A. Weimann F. Bozzetti 《Clinical nutrition (Edinburgh, Scotland)》2009,28(4):378
In modern surgical practice it is advisable to manage patients within an enhanced recovery protocol and thereby have them eating normal food within 1–3 days. Consequently, there is little room for routine perioperative artificial nutrition. Only a minority of patients may benefit from such therapy. These are predominantly patients who are at risk of developing complications after surgery. The main goals of perioperative nutritional support are to minimize negative protein balance by avoiding starvation, with the purpose of maintaining muscle, immune, and cognitive function and to enhance postoperative recovery.Several studies have demonstrated that 7–10 days of preoperative parenteral nutrition improves postoperative outcome in patients with severe undernutrition who cannot be adequately orally or enterally fed. Conversely, its use in well-nourished or mildly undernourished patients is associated with either no benefit or with increased morbidity.Postoperative parenteral nutrition is recommended in patients who cannot meet their caloric requirements within 7–10 days orally or enterally. In patients who require postoperative artificial nutrition, enteral feeding or a combination of enteral and supplementary parenteral feeding is the first choice.The main consideration when administering fat and carbohydrates in parenteral nutrition is not to overfeed the patient. The commonly used formula of 25 kcal/kg ideal body weight furnishes an approximate estimate of daily energy expenditure and requirements. Under conditions of severe stress requirements may approach 30 kcal/kg ideal body weights.In those patients who are unable to be fed via the enteral route after surgery, and in whom total or near total parenteral nutrition is required, a full range of vitamins and trace elements should be supplemented on a daily basis.
相似文献
Summary of statements: Surgery | |||
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Subject | Recommendations | Grade | Number |
Indications | Preoperative fasting from midnight is unnecessary in most patients | A | Preliminary remarks |
Interruption of nutritional intake is unnecessary after surgery in most patients | A | Preliminary remarks | |
Application | Preoperative parenteral nutrition is indicated in severely undernourished patients who cannot be adequately orally or enterally fed | A | 1 |
Postoperative parenteral nutrition is beneficial in undernourished patients in whom enteral nutrition is not feasible or not tolerated | A | 2 | |
Postoperative parenteral nutrition is beneficial in patients with postoperative complications impairing gastrointestinal function who are unable to receive and absorb adequate amounts of oral/enteral feeding for at least 7 days | A | 2 | |
In patients who require postoperative artificial nutrition, enteral feeding or a combination of enteral and supplementary parenteral feeding is the first choice | A | 2 | |
Combinations of enteral and parenteral nutrition should be considered in patients in whom there is an indication for nutritional support and in whom >60% of energy needs cannot be met via the enteral route, e.g. in high output enterocutaneous fistulae or in patients in whom partly obstructing benign or malignant gastro-intestinal lesions do not allow enteral refeeding. In completely obstructing lesions surgery should not be postponed because of the risk of aspiration or severe bowel distension leading to peritonitis | C | 2 | |
In patients with prolonged gastrointestinal failure parenteral nutrition is life-saving | C | 2 | |
Preoperative carbohydrate loading using the oral route is recommended in most patients. In the rare patients who cannot eat or are not allowed to drink preoperatively for whatever reasons the intravenous route can be used | A | 3 | |
Type of formula | The commonly used formula of 25 kcal/kg ideal body weight furnishes an approximate estimate of daily energy expenditure and requirements. Under conditions of severe stress requirements may approach 30 kcal/kg ideal body weight | B | 4 |
In illness/stressed conditions a daily nitrogen delivery equivalent to a protein intake of 1.5 g/kg ideal body weight (or approximately 20% of total energy requirements) is generally effective to limit nitrogen losses | B | 4 | |
The Protein:Fat:Glucose caloric ratio should approximate to 20:30:50% | C | 4 | |
At present, there is a tendency to increase the glucose:fat calorie ratio from 50:50 to 60:40 or even 70:30 of the non-protein calories, due to the problems encountered regarding hyperlipidemia and fatty liver, which is sometimes accompanied by cholestasis and in some patients may progress to non-alcoholic steatohepatitis | C | 5 | |
Optimal nitrogen sparing has been shown to be achieved when all components of the parenteral nutrition mix are administered simultaneously over 24 hours | A | 6 | |
Individualized nutrition is often unnecessary in patients without serious co-morbidity | C | 7 | |
The optimal parenteral nutrition regimen for critically ill surgical patients should probably include supplemental n-3 fatty acids. The evidence-base for such recommendations requires further input from prospective randomised trials | C | 8 | |
In well-nourished patients who recover oral or enteral nutrition by postoperative day 5 there is a little evidence that intravenous supplementation of vitamins and trace elements is required | C | 9 | |
After surgery, in those patients who are unable to be fed via the enteral route, and in whom total or near total parenteral nutrition is required, a full range of vitamins and trace elements should be supplemented on a daily basis | C | 9 | |
Weaning from parenteral nutrition is not necessary | A | 10 |
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9.
Kirsten Simmons Manoj Gambhir Juan Leon Ben Lopman 《Emerging infectious diseases》2013,19(8):1260-1267
The duration of immunity to norovirus (NoV) gastroenteritis has been believed to be from 6 months to 2 years. However, several observations are inconsistent with this short period. To gain better estimates of the duration of immunity to NoV, we developed a mathematical model of community NoV transmission. The model was parameterized from the literature and also fit to age-specific incidence data from England and Wales by using maximum likelihood. We developed several scenarios to determine the effect of unknowns regarding transmission and immunity on estimates of the duration of immunity. In the various models, duration of immunity to NoV gastroenteritis was estimated at 4.1 (95% CI 3.2–5.1) to 8.7 (95% CI 6.8–11.3) years. Moreover, we calculated that children (<5 years) are much more infectious than older children and adults. If a vaccine can achieve protection for duration of natural immunity indicated by our results, its potential health and economic benefits could be substantial.Key words: Norovirus, modeling, mathematical model, immunity, incidence, vaccination, vaccine development, viruses, enteric infections, acute gastroenteritisNoroviruses (NoVs) are the most common cause of acute gastroenteritis (AGE) in industrialized countries. In the United States, NoV causes an estimated 21 million cases of AGE (1), 1.7 million outpatient visits (2), 400,000 emergency care visits, 70,000 hospitalizations (3), and 800 deaths annually across all age groups (4). Although the highest rates of disease are in young children, infection and disease occur throughout life (5), despite an antibody seroprevalence >50%, and infection rates approach 100% in older adults (6,7).Frequently cited estimates of the duration of immunity to NoV are based on human challenge studies conducted in the 1970s. In the first, Parrino et al. challenged volunteers with Norwalk virus (the prototype NoV strain) inoculum multiple times. Results suggested that the immunity to Norwalk AGE lasts from ≈2 months to 2 years (8). A subsequent study with a shorter challenge interval suggested that immunity to Norwalk virus lasts for at least 6 months (9). In addition, the collection of volunteer studies together demonstrate that antibodies against NoV may not confer protection and that protection from infection (serologic response or viral shedding) is harder to achieve than protection from disease (defined as AGE symptoms) (10–14). That said, most recent studies have reported some protection from illness and infection in association with antibodies that block binding of virus-like particles to histo-blood group antigen (HBGA) (13,14). Other studies have also associated genetic resistance to NoV infections with mutations in the 1,2-fucosyltransferase (FUT2) gene (or “secretor” gene) (15). Persons with a nonsecretor gene (FUT2−/−) represent as much as 20% of the European population. Challenge studies have also shown that recently infected volunteers are susceptible to heterologous strains sooner than to homotypic challenge, indicating limited cross-protection (11).One of many concerns with all classic challenge studies is that the virus dose given to volunteers was several thousand–fold greater than the small amount of virus capable of causing human illness (estimated as 18–1,000 virus particles) (16). Thus, immunity to a lower challenge dose, similar to what might be encountered in the community, might be more robust and broadly protective than the protection against artificial doses encountered in these volunteer studies. Indeed, Teunis et al. have clearly demonstrated a dose-response relationship whereby persons challenged with a higher NoV dose have substantially greater illness risk (16).Furthermore, in contrast with results of early challenge studies, several observations can be made that, when taken together, are inconsistent with a duration of immunity on the scale of months. First, the incidence of NoV in the general population has been estimated in several countries as ≈5% per year, with substantially higher rates in children (5). Second, Norwalk virus (GI.1) volunteer studies conducted over 3 decades, indicate that approximately one third of genetically susceptible persons (i.e., secretor-positive persons with a functional FUT2 gene) are immune (18,20,22). The point prevalence of immunity in the population (i.e., population immunity) can be approximated by the incidence of infection (or exposure) multiplied by the duration of immunity. If duration of immunity is truly <1 year and incidence is 5%, <5% of the population should have acquired immunity at any given time. However, challenge studies show population immunity levels on the order of 30%–45%, suggesting that our understanding of the duration of immunity is incomplete (8,11,17,18). HBGA–mediated lack of susceptibility may play a key role, but given the high seroprevalence of NoV antibodies and broad diversity of human HBGAs and NoV, HBGA–mediated lack of susceptibility cannot solely explain the discrepancy between estimates of duration of immunity and observed NoV incidence. Moreover, population immunity levels may be driven through the acquisition of immunity of fully susceptible persons or through boosting of immunity among those previously exposed.
Open in a separate window*AGE, acute gastroenteritis; SM, Snow Mountain virus; NV, Norwalk virus; MC, Montgomery County virus; HI, Hawaii virus; GII.4, genogroup 2 type 4.
†Only includes initial challenge, not subsequent re-challenge.
‡Only includes placebo or control group.In this study, we aimed to gain better estimates of the duration of immunity to NoV by developing a community-based transmission model that represents the transmission process and natural history of NoV, including the waning of immunity. The model distinguishes between persons susceptible to disease and those susceptible to infection but not disease. We fit the model to age-specific incidence data from a community cohort study. However, several factors related to NoV transmission remain unknown (e.g., the role asymptomatic persons who shed virus play in transmission). Therefore, we constructed and fit a series of 6 models to represent the variety of possible infection processes to gain a more robust estimate of the duration of immunity. This approach does not consider multiple strains or the emergence of new variants, so we are effectively estimating minimum duration of immunity in the absence of major strain changes. 相似文献
Table 1
Summary of literature review of Norwalk virus volunteer challenge studies*Study | All | Secretor positive | Secretor negative | Strain | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
No. challenged | No. (%) infected | No. (%) AGE | No. challenged | No. (%) infected | No. (%) AGE | No. challenged | No. (%) infected | ||||
Dolin 1971 (10) | 12 | 9 (75) | SM | ||||||||
Wyatt 1974 (11)† | 23 | 16 (70) | NV, MC, HI | ||||||||
Parrino 1977 (8)† | 12 | 6 (50) | NV | ||||||||
Johnson 1990 (17)† | 42 | 31 (74) | 25 (60) | NV | |||||||
Graham 1994 (12) | 50 | 41 (82) | 34 (68) | NV | |||||||
Lindesmith 2003 (18) | 77 | 34 (44) | 21 (27) | 55 | 35 (64) | 21 (38) | 21 | 0 | NV | ||
Lindesmith 2005 (19) | 15 | 9 (60) | 7 (47) | 12 | 8 (67) | 3 | 1 (33) | SM | |||
Atmar 2008 (20) | 21 | 16 (76) | 11 (52) | 21 | 16 (76) | 11 (52) | NV | ||||
Leon 2011 (21)‡ | 15 | 7 (47) | 5 (33) | 15 | 7 (47) | 5 (33) | NV | ||||
Atmar 2011 (14)‡ | 41 | 34 (83) | 29 (71) | 41 | 34 (83) | 29 (71) | NV | ||||
Seitz 2011 (22) | 13 | 10 (77) | 10 (77) | 13 | 10 (77) | 10 (77) | 1 (5.6) | NV | |||
Frenck 2012 (23) | 40 | 17 (42) | 12 (30) | 23 | 16 (70) | 12 (52.1) | 17 | GII.4 |
†Only includes initial challenge, not subsequent re-challenge.
‡Only includes placebo or control group.In this study, we aimed to gain better estimates of the duration of immunity to NoV by developing a community-based transmission model that represents the transmission process and natural history of NoV, including the waning of immunity. The model distinguishes between persons susceptible to disease and those susceptible to infection but not disease. We fit the model to age-specific incidence data from a community cohort study. However, several factors related to NoV transmission remain unknown (e.g., the role asymptomatic persons who shed virus play in transmission). Therefore, we constructed and fit a series of 6 models to represent the variety of possible infection processes to gain a more robust estimate of the duration of immunity. This approach does not consider multiple strains or the emergence of new variants, so we are effectively estimating minimum duration of immunity in the absence of major strain changes. 相似文献
10.
Aishatu B. Gubio Saka J. Muhammad Aisha Mamman Ado Zakari Oladayo Biya 《Online Journal of Public Health Informatics》2013,5(1)
Objective
To analyze Influenza surveillance data from 2009 to 2010 the Northern, Southern, and Western zones in Nigeria and determined co-morbidity factors associated with influenza in Nigeria.Introduction
Influenza is viral illness that affects mainly the nose, throat, bronchi and occasionally, the lungs. Influenza viruses have been an under-appreciated contributor to morbidity and mortality in Nigeria. They are a substantial contributor to respiratory disease burden in Nigeria and other developing countries. Nigeria started influenza sentinel surveillance in 2008 to inform disease control and prevention efforts.Methods
We conducted a cross sectional study on secondary data analysis of Influenza surveillance data from January 2009 to December 2010 obtained from Nigeria’s Federal Ministry of Health. Epidemiological data were obtained for suspected ILI and SARI cases defined in accordance with WHO Regional Office for Africa’s guidelines. Laboratory confirmation for presence of influenza viruses was done using real time PCR assays.Standardized case investigation forms used for sample collection were analyzed using Epi-Info software to generate frequency and proportions.Results
Of the 5,860 suspected influenza cases reported between 2007 and 2011 from all the influenza sites in Nigeria, 1104 (18.8%) and 2,510 (42.8%) of the total cases were recorded in 2009 and 2010 respectively. A total of 296 (7.3%) were positive for Flu A, while 147 (2.9%) for Flu B. The Northern zone recorded a total of 1908(AR: 2.6/100,000) suspected cases while the Southern zone recorded 554(AR: 1.48/100,000) and the Western zone reported 549(2/100,000) suspected cases. Of the 443 that were positive 43 (1.5%) were health workers, 446 (8.0%) had co infection of chronic respiratory tract disease, 50(3.7%) had co infection with heart disease. Exposure to poultry was 2797(98.2%).Conclusions
Co-morbidity factors associated with influenza viruses are an important contribution to the burden of respiratory illnesses in Nigeria predominantly affecting children less than 5years and adults 25years and above. Additional years of data are needed to better understand the co-morbidity factors associated epidemiology of influenza viruses in Nigeria.INFLUENZA AND CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE PULMONARY DISEASE (COPD)INFLUENZA AND CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE PULMONARY DISEASE (COPD) | Influenza with COPD N (%) | Influenza only N(%) | Total |
---|---|---|---|
A/H1 | 0 (0.0) | 12(100.0) | 12(100.0) |
A/H3 | 10(11.2) | 79(88.8) | 89 (100.0) |
All Negative | 551 (11.1) | 4392 (88.9) | 4943 (100.0) |
pdmA/H1N1 | 14 (9.3) | 137 (90.7) | 151 (100.0) |
pdmA/H1N1 | 10(5.6) | 170(99.4) | 180 (100.0) |
Total | 585(10.9) | 4790(89.1) | 5375(100.0) |
Influenza Sub-type | Influenza with Chronic Shortness of Breath N (%) | Influenza cases without Chronic Shortness of Breath N(%) | Total |
---|---|---|---|
A/H1 | 0 (0.0) | 16 (100.0) | 16 (100.0) |
A/H3 | 1 (0.91 | 115 (99.1) | 116 (100.0) |
All Negative | 56 (1.1) | 5204 (98.9) | 5204 (100.0) |
pdm A/H1N1 | 0 (1.3) | 152 (98.7) | 152 (100.0) |
Un-suptype-able | 0 (0.0) | 181 (100.0) | 181 (100.0) |
Total | 57 (1.0) | 5668 (99.0) | 5725 (100.0) |
11.
Li Tan Jie Zhang Liwei Cheng Weirong Yan Vinod K. Diwan Lu Long Shaofa Nie 《Online Journal of Public Health Informatics》2013,5(1)