Community Monitoring of Integrated Pest Management versus Conventional Pesticide Use in a World Bank Project in Indonesia

Abstract

Pesticide Action Network North America (PANNA) collaborated with a local Indonesian nongovernmental organization (NCO), Yayasan Duta Awam (YDA), in monitoring impacts of the World Bank-financed Integrated Swamps Development Project (ISDP). This paper reports the results of the community-based investigation, which found wide disparities between the World Bank's policy on pest management and its implementation. Instead of reducing farmers' reliance on pesticides as required, the ISDP led to increased intensity and frequency of pesticide use and adverse health and environmental effects from pesticide exposures. YDA and PANN A presented the findings to the Indonesian government and World Bank officials, and farmers requested training in IPM among other recommendations. After NCOs undertook joint advocacy efforts to reduce pesticide dependence in the project, the World Bank withdrew hazardous pesticides from input packages, IPM training was initiated, and community monitors became local leaders in their villages. The study demonstrates the importance and efficacy of independent community-based monitoring in documenting pesticide problems and replacing pesticides with IPM in World Bank development projects.     

Farmers' Perceptions ot Pesticides,and Resultant Health Problems from Exposures

Abstract

As part of an evaluation study of the impacts of the Indonesian integrated pest management (IPM) Farmer Field Schools on farmers' health, focus group discussions were conducted with rice farmers who grew shallots in rotation. Farmers who had previously participated in IPM rice field schools and who were at the time participating in IPM shallot field schools were compared with farmers who had had no experience with IPM methods. The study found that farmers' knowledge concerning the health dangers of pesticides is not sufficient to change their behaviors. Their overriding concern is crop damage that leads to economic loss, not health. IPM field-school training offers farmers a viable alternative by concretely demonstrating the health, agricultural, environmental, and economic advantages of eliminating unnecessary pesticide use. If public health professionals aim to change behaviors through interventions, they must employ appropriate methods, meet the community's priorities and values, and offer feasible alternatives.     

Pesticide Use and Self-Reported Health Symptoms Among Rice Farmers in Zanzibar

The agrarian population in low- and middle-income countries suffers from a number of adverse health effects due to pesticide exposure. In Zanzibar, the government subsidizes pesticides to enhance local rice production. The objectives of this study were to assess Zanzibar smallholder rice farmers’ pesticide use and self-reported health symptoms in relation to pesticide exposure, training, and use of protective measures and to raise awareness for future local policy formulation. An exploratory cross-sectional interviewer-administered study was conducted among 99 rice farmers. Participants were selected based on convenience sampling and stratified by expected exposure category. The study participants reported using pesticides in World Health Organization (WHO) Class II. Of pesticide users, 61% reported one or more symptoms of possible acute pesticide poisoning. Only 50% of pesticide users had received training in safe handling and application of pesticides, but those who had displayed a higher use of protective measures. Farmers who did not use protective measures were more likely to have reported skin irritation and headache, which, together with eye irritation, were the most commonly reported acute symptoms. The main sociodemographic differences between the expected exposure categories of pesticide users and nonusers were in gender and education level. Scaling up of training in safe handling and application of pesticides is needed. Further studies are required to better understand the mechanisms behind the choice to use pesticides or not.     

Assessment of risk reduction strategies for the management of agricultural nonpoint source pesticide runoff in estuarine ecosystems

Agricultural nonpoint source (NPS) runoff may result in significant discharges of pesticides, suspended sediments, and fertilizers into estuarine habitats adjacent to agricultural areas or downstream from agricultural watersheds. Exposure of estuarine fin fish and shellfish to toxic levels of pesticides may occur, resulting in significant declines in field populations. Integrated pest management (IPM), best management practices (BMP), and retention ponds (RP) are risk management tools that have been proposed to reduce the contaminant risk from agricultural NPS runoff into estuarine ecosystems. Field studies were conducted at three sites within coastal estuarine ecosystems of South Carolina (SC) from 1985 to 1990 that varied in terms of the amount and degree of risk reduction strategies employed. An intensively managed (IPM, BMP, and RP) agricultural treatment site (TRT) was studied for pesticide runoff impacts. From 1985 to 1987, there were minimal (some IPM and BMP) management activities at TRT, but from 1988 to 1990, TRT was managed using an intensive risk reduction strategy. A second unmanaged agricultural growing area, Kiawah (KWA), was also studied and compared with TRT in terms of pesticide runoff and the resulting impacts on grass shrimp (Palaemonetes pugio) and mummichogs (Fundulus heteroclitus). A third, non-agricultural, reference site (CTL) was used for comparing results from the managed and unmanaged agricultural sites. In situ toxicity tests and field samples of the grass shrimp populations were conducted at each site and compared in terms of survival and the effectiveness of current risk reduction strategies. Significant runoff of insecticides (azinphosmethyl, endosulfan, and fenvalerate) along with several fish kills were observed at TRT prior to the implementation of rigorous risk reduction methods. A significant reduction of in stream pesticide concentrations (up to 90%) was observed at TRT following the implementation of strict NPS runoff controls, which greatly reduced impacts on estuarine fish and shellfish. At the unmanaged KWA, continued impacts due to the runoff of these insecticides were observed, along with several fish kills. Additional monitoring indicated that gravid female grass shrimp populations from KWA had elevated levels of P-glycoprotein (P-gp), a multidrug resistance protein, which may transport various pesticides across cellular membranes. Comparison of field results with laboratory toxicity tests established that pesticide exposure was the primary cause of observed field impacts at each site. These findings clearly indicate the value of an integrated risk reduction strategy (BMP, IPM, and RP) for minimizing impacts from NPS agricultural pesticide runoff.     

A survey of California public school districts' ant and weed management practices and a review of their use of IPM

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency encourages school officials to adopt integrated pest management (IPM) to reduce children's exposure to potentially harmful pesticides. In California, the Healthy Schools Act of 2000 (HSA) establishes right-to-know requirements for pesticide use in public schools; requires school districts to designate an IPM coordinator; and requires the California Department of Pesticide Regulation (DPR) to collect pesticide-use information from pest control businesses, conduct IPM training workshops, and promote least-toxic pest management practices. DPR periodically surveys school districts statewide to measure compliance with the HSA and the use of least-toxic management practices compatible with IPM and to guide DPR's training and outreach efforts. Results from three surveys, conducted in 2001, 2002, and 2004, show that an increasing number of districts use ant management practices compatible with IPM; however, fewer districts use IPM-compatible weed management practices. DPR's California School IPM program plans to develop technical materials and to conduct training workshops that will provide districts with more information about how to use an IPM program to prevent and manage weeds.     

Impact of population characteristics on Illinois childcare adoption of integrated pest management (IPM)

Aim

Assess participation of licensed Illinois childcare facilities in integrated pesticide management (IPM) training, IPM understanding and (for trained facilities) implementation relative to local socio-economic characteristics.

Subject and methods

2000 census data were compared to pre- and post-training survey data from childcare facilities to assess the direct and indirect (diffusion) impacts of training through bivariate correlation (Spearman’s Rho), 1-way ANOVA and regression analysis. Socio-economic variables were selected from studies of environmental concern and behavior, extent of pest problems, pesticide use and children’s exposure. Dependent variables included self-reported facility characteristics, pest problems and control, understanding IPM benefits and IPM legislation, and IPM implementation.

Results

For all childcare facilities, training explained 8.9% and socio-economic variables 18% of the variance in understanding IPM benefits. Childcare facilities in urban low socio-economic populations were more likely to suffer from pests, participate in training and understand IPM benefits; however, childcare centers were more likely than smaller facilities and family childcare homes to implement IPM. Private childcare facilities in higher-income populations were less likely to understand IPM benefits from training or other sources, but training led to implementation.

Conclusions

Large government sponsored or private childcare facilities are more likely to implement select IPM practices post-training. Licensed and informal facilities could benefit from on-line IPM training certification programs with inspection requirements and IPM implementation financial assistance, similar to government energy saving programs for small businesses. More research is needed in higher-income populations to assess pesticide use and children’s exposure and need for IPM, to inform intervention programs.     

Farmers' perceptions of pesticides,and resultant health problems from exposures

As part of an evaluation study of the impacts of the Indonesian integrated pest management (IPM) Farmer Field Schools on farmers' health, focus group discussions were conducted with rice farmers who grew shallots in rotation. Farmers who had previously participated in IPM rice field schools and who were at the time participating in IPM shallot field schools were compared with farmers who had had no experience with IPM methods. The study found that farmers' knowledge concerning the health dangers of pesticides is not sufficient to change their behaviors. Their overriding concern is crop damage that leads to economic loss, not health. IPM field-school training offers farmers a viable alternative by concretely demonstrating the health, agricultural, environmental, and economic advantages of eliminating unnecessary pesticide use. If public health professionals aim to change behaviors through interventions, they must employ appropriate methods, meet the community's priorities and values, and offer feasible alternatives.     

Organophosphate pesticide exposures of traditional and integrated pest management farmers from working air conditions: a case study in Thailand

Concentrations of organophosphate pesticides, including chlorpyrifos and methyl parathion, were measured in ambient air breathed by farmers in Tambon Bang Rieng, Thailand. An exposure assessment and comparison was made between the levels of pesticide exposure of traditional and integrated pest management (IPM) farmers. Thirty-three air samples were collected during pesticide spraying. Traditional farmers were exposed to higher levels of the pesticide(s), with an average concentration of 0.19 mg/m3, compared with 0.037 mg/m3 for the IPM farmers. It was estimated that a farmer of Tambon Bang Rieng would be exposed to 81-12,261 mg of the organophosphate pesticide(s) via inhalation throughout his or her lifetime. Moreover, traditional farmers absorbed more of pesticide via inhalation than did IPM farmers.     

Neurological symptoms among Sri Lankan farmers occupationally exposed to acetylcholinesterase-inhibiting insecticides

BACKGROUND: In many agricultural districts in Sri Lanka, pesticide poisoning is a leading cause of death. This study aims to evaluate the impact of pesticide use on Sri Lankan farmers' health. METHODS: A total of 260 subjects were surveyed in both a low and a high exposure period. Acetylcholinesterase activity was measured and data on symptoms were collected with questionnaires. RESULTS: Twenty-four percent of surveyed farmers had suffered at least once from acute pesticide poisoning. Farmers showed significantly more inhibition of cholinesterase activity than controls. Acute symptoms indicative for exposure to cholinesterase-inhibiting pesticides were associated with farming and a higher degree of cholinesterase suppression (more than 13% inhibition). Integrated Pest Management (IPM) training seemed to result in less insecticide use, and less cholinesterase inhibition. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that occupational acetylcholinesterase-inhibiting insecticide exposures have a negative impact on Sri Lankan farmers' health. Overall reduction in pesticide use seems the best option to protect farmers from the adverse effects of pesticides.     

Pesticide health and safety and the work and impact of international agencies: partial successes and major failures.

The paper explores aspects of the international role and impact of key agencies in informing regulators and users about pesticides and controlling and preventing pesticide poisoning worldwide. The WHO, IPCS, ILO, World Bank, and related organizations such as ICPS, for instance, all have effects. Particular attention is paid to the IPCS environmental health criteria documents on pesticides. Political and economic influences affect decisions about whether or not to use pesticides, and the risk assessments and data used to assess pesticides. This has significant influence on the selection and use of particular pesticides and hence on both acute and chronic pesticide poisoning cases globally. Progress has been made to correct these covert and damaging influences and imbalances, but more needs to be done to ensure proper accountability and transparency in pesticide health and safety policy and practice.     

Pregnancy outcomes among farming households of Nueva Ecija with conventional pesticide use versus integrated pest management

A retrospective cohort study was conducted to compare pregnancy outcomes in farming households that used pesticides conventionally with those that practiced integrated pest management (IPM) in Nueva Ecija, Philippines, in the period 1998-1999. Conventional pesticide users (CPUs) were defined as pesticide appliers who used pesticides routinely and regularly, whereas users of IPM were those who used pesticides as necessary, and on economically injured crop areas only. The data sets were subjected to the chi-square test of association, Fisher's exact probability test, and logistic regression analysis. At a significance level at 0.05, spontaneous abortion occurred significantly more often among the 345 CPU households than among the 331 IPM households (adjusted risk ratio 6.17). Likewise, birth defects were significantly more common in the CPU group (adjusted risk ratio 4.56). Thus, people of reproductive age who plan to have children should avoid any use of pesticides.     

Pregnancy Outcomes among Farming Households of Nueva Ecija with Conventional Pesticide Use versus Integrated Pest Management

Abstract

A retrospective cohort study was conducted to compare pregnancy outcomes in farming households that used pesticides conventionally with those that practiced integrated pest management (IPM) in Nueva Ecija, Philippines, in the period 1998–1999. Conventional pesticide users (CPUs) were defined as pesticide appliers who used pesticides routinely and regularly, whereas users of IPM were those who used pesticides as necessary, and on economically injured crop areas only. The data sets were subjected to the chi-square test of association, Fisher's exact probability test, and logistic regression analysis. At a significance level at 0.05, spontaneous abortion occurred significantly more often among the 345 CPU households than among the 331 IPM households (adjusted risk ratio 6.17). Likewise, birth defects were significantly more common in the CPU group (adjusted risk ratio 4.56). Thus, people of reproductive age who plan to have children should avoid any use of pesticides.     

Reducing pesticide exposure and associated neurotoxic burden in an Ecuadorian small farm population

The contribution of community-based interventions, including farmer field schools (FFSs) in integrated pest management (IPM), to reducing pesticide exposures and associated neurotoxic burden among small-farm families in Ecuador was assessed in three Andean farming communities in a co-design of targeted action-research. Baseline questionnaire surveys elicited pesticide-related knowledge, practices, and exposure and neurobehavioral assessments were done using an adapted WHO battery. Pesticide applications on plots farmed by FFS versus non-FFS participants were compared. A year later, repeated surveys of participating households (n = 29) and neurobehavioral testing of individuals (n = 63) permitted comparisons of pre- and post-intervention values. The FFS graduates applied pesticides on their plots less frequently (p = 0.171). FFS households had increased pesticide-related knowledge of labels and exposure risk factors (both p < 0.004), better pesticide-handling practices (p < 0.01), and less skin exposure (p < 0.01). Neurobehavioural status had improved, particularly digit span and visuo-spatial function, resulting in overall z-score increases. Thus, community interventions reduced pesticide use, reported skin exposure, and neurotoxic burden among smallholder farm families.     

Probabilistic assessment of acute health symptoms related to pesticide use under intensified Nepalese agriculture

Agriculture intensification has pushed farmers to use pesticides for maintaining agricultural productivity and to increase income. However, pesticide use has a significant negative impact on farmers' health. In Nepal, uses of pesticides have been already documented in agriculturally intensified areas, however, little is known on health impacts. Weekly interviews were conducted during 2005 to assess the emerging pesticide problems, estimate the magnitude of pesticide-related acute illness, and identify associated risk factors. The study showed that very few farmers have adopted safety gear during pesticide spraying. The safety measures regression shows that warm temperature and drinking habits significantly reduced adoption of safety gear, whereas, integrated pest management (IPM) training and farm experience increased its adoption. The dose-response analyses showed that use of insecticides or fungicides, spray duration and mixing pesticides significantly affect farmer's health, which could be reduced either by educating farmers, increasing the use of safety gear, or reducing mixtures applications.     

Pesticide use knowledge and practices: a gender differences in Nepal

It is important to understand gender difference on pesticide use knowledge, attitude and practices for identifying pesticide risks by gender and to recommend more gender-sensitive programs. However, very few studies have been conducted so far in Nepal. This study, thus, interviewed a total of 325 males and 109 females during 2005 to assess gender differences on pesticide use knowledge, attitude and practices. More than 50% females had never been to school and only <8% individuals were found trained in Integrated Pest Management (IPM). Almost all males and females did not smoke, drink and eat during pesticides application and also believed that pesticides are harmful to human health, livestock, plant diversity and their environment. However, there were gender differences on household decision on pesticides to be used (p<0.001), care of wind direction during spraying (p=0.032), prior knowledge on safety measures (p=0.016), reading and understanding of pesticides labels (p<0.001), awareness of the labels (p<0.001) and protective covers. Almost all respondents were aware of negative impacts of pesticide use on human health and environment irrespective of gender; however, females were at higher risk due to lower level of pesticide use safety and awareness. It is strongly recommended to initiate gender-sensitive educational and awareness activities, especially on pesticide use practices and safety precautions.     

Dietary exposure to chlorinated pesticide residues in fruits and vegetables from Ghanaian markets

Analysis of 400 fruit and vegetable samples obtained from open and closed markets in Accra, Ghana was carried out employing a multi-residue method based on solid-phase extraction followed by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. Generally, the data showed that most of the fruit and vegetable samples analysed contain residues of the monitored pesticides below the accepted maximum residue limit (MRL) as adopted by the Food and Agricultural Organization/World Health Organization (FAO/WHO) Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC), although some pesticide residues were not detected in some of the fruit and vegetable samples. The results obtained further revealed that 20% of the fruit and vegetable samples were above MRL, 73% were below MRL and 7% contained no detectable level of the monitored pesticides. Estimation of dietary intake of pesticides from fruit and vegetables revealed that, pesticides detected in fruits and vegetables did not cause dietary intake risks. The results recommend the need for regular monitoring for pesticide residues of a greater number of samples for long periods, especially in fruit and vegetables, to protect consumers’ health.     

A pilot program using promotoras de salud to educate farmworker families about the risk from pesticide exposure

This paper reviews a successful community-based education effort to minimize pesticide exposure to migrant and seasonal farmworkers and their families through innovative training curricula, informal participatory educational techniques and culturally sensitive outreach methods. In 2004, Migrant Clinicians Network, Inc., trained lay health educators, or promotoras de salud, from local agencies in southern New Mexico in pesticide safety and in ways to successfully promote safety information in the farmworker community. Through home visits and small group workshops, the promotoras trained 273 farmworkers and farmworker family members on ways to reduce exposures to pesticides in their homes and at work, with an emphasis on protecting children. The families received a Spanish language comic book that reinforced the pesticide safety information, emphasizing the health effects of acute and chronic pesticide exposure and steps to protect farmworker children from pesticide exposure. The project resulted in a significant increase in knowledge regarding the routes of exposure, the vulnerability of children, the signs and symptoms of pesticide poisonings and the ways to minimize pesticide exposures. Additionally, the project showed improved behaviors aimed at minimizing pesticide exposure through accidental poisonings in the home. This pilot project proved the efficacy of an in-home, one-on-one approach with a culturally appropriate educational comic book as an instrument to help transfer education to the community. Moreover, the educational method involving promotoras offers a training-of- trainer approach that is easy to implement and potentially replicate.     

Impact of Training Bolivian Farmers on Integrated Pest Management and Diffusion of Knowledge to Neighboring Farmers

Teaching farmers integrated pest management (IPM) in farmer field schools (FFS) has led to reduced pesticide use and safer handling. This article evaluates the long-term impact of training farmers on IPM and the diffusion of knowledge from trained farmers to neighboring farmers, a subject of importance to justify training costs and to promote a healthy and sustainable agriculture. Training on IPM of farmers took place from 2002 to 2004 in their villages in La Paz County, Bolivia, whereas dissemination of knowledge from trained farmer to neighboring farmer took place until 2009. To evaluate the impact of the intervention, self-reported knowledge and practice on pesticide handling and IPM among trained farmers (n = 23) and their neighboring farmers (n = 47) were analyzed in a follow-up study and compared in a cross-sectional analysis with a control group of farmers (n = 138) introduced in 2009. Variables were analyzed using χ² test and analysis of variance (ANOVA). Trained farmers improved and performed significantly better in all tested variables than their neighboring farmers, although the latter also improved their performance from 2002 to 2009. Including a control group showed an increasing trend in all variables, with the control farmers having the poorest performance and trained farmers the best. The same was seen in an aggregated variable where trained farmers had a mean score of 16.55 (95% confidence interval [CI]: 15.45–17.65), neighboring farmers a mean score of 11.97 (95% CI: 10.56–13.38), and control farmers a mean score of 9.18 (95% CI: 8.55–9.80). Controlling for age and living altitude did not change these results. Trained farmers and their neighboring farmers improved and maintained knowledge and practice on IPM and pesticide handling. Diffusion of knowledge from trained farmers might explain the better performance of the neighboring farmers compared with the control farmers. Dissemination of knowledge can contribute to justify the cost and convince donors and governments in low-income countries to prioritize farmers training.     

The impact of training in integrated pest management among Nicaraguan maize farmers: increased net returns and reduced health risk

To assess the impact of training resource-poor maize farmers on the Pacific Plain of Nicaragua in the use of integrated pest management (IPM), 1,200 farmers received training during two years. CARE trained 13 extensionists and they provided intensive training to 60 promoter-farmers, who trained the 1,200 farmers. The farmers were trained in: the dangers of pesticides, recognition of the important organisms (pests and beneficials) in their fields, the biology and ecology of the organisms, how to determine pest population levels, how to choose the best method and product for control, and how to make decisions in the fields according to their new understanding and simple cost-benefit analysis. Three groups of farmers were monitored for two years: the intensively trained farmers (60 promoter-farmers), the trained farmers (1,200), and a group of "control" farmers who did not receive training during the first two years. After two years, the trained farmers used fewer pesticides, spent less money on pest control, made higher net returns, and suffered less exposure to cholinesterase-inhibiting pesticides than did farmers who did not receive IPM training. In addition, a comparison of cholinesterase levels of farmers who used personal protective equipment showed no reduction of exposure to organophosphate insecticides, compared with farmers who did not use the equipment.     

The Impact of Training in Integrated Pest Management among Nicaraguan Maize Farmers: Increased Net Returns and Reduced Health Risk

Abstract

To assess the impact of training resource-poor maize farmers on the Pacific Plain of Nicaragua in the use of integrated pest management (IPM), 1,200 farmers received training during two years. CARE trained 13 extensionists and they provided intensive training to 60 promoter-farmers, who trained the 1,200 farmers. The farmers were trained in: the dangers of pesticides, recognition of the important organisms (pests and beneficials) in their fields, the biology and ecology of the organisms, how to determine pest population levels, how to choose the best method and product for control, and how to make decisions in the fields according to their new understanding and simple cost-benefit analysis. Three groups of farmers were monitored for two years: the intensively trained farmers (60 promoter-farmers), the trained farmers (1,200), and a group of “control” farmers who did not receive training during the first two years. After two years, the trained farmers used fewer pesticides, spent less money on pest control, made higher net returns, and suffered less exposure to cholinesterase-inhibiting pesticides than did farmers who did not receive IPM training. In addition, a comparison of cholinesterase levels of farmers who used personal protective equipment showed no reduction of exposure to organophosphate insecticides, compared with farmers who did not use the equipment.