Surgery with cooperative robots.

Advances in endoscopic techniques for abdominal procedures continue to reduce the invasiveness of surgery. Gaining access to the peritoneal cavity through small incisions prompted the first significant shift in general surgery. The complete elimination of external incisions through natural orifice access is potentially the next step in reducing patient trauma. While minimally invasive techniques offer significant patient advantages, the procedures are surgically challenging. Robotic surgical systems are being developed that address the visualization and manipulation limitations, but many of these systems remain constrained by the entry incisions. Alternatively, miniature in vivo robots are being developed that are completely inserted into the peritoneal cavity for laparoscopic and natural orifice procedures. These robots can provide vision and task assistance without the constraints of the entry incision, and can reduce the number of incisions required for laparoscopic procedures. In this study, a series of minimally invasive animal-model surgeries were performed using multiple miniature in vivo robots in cooperation with existing laparoscopy and endoscopy tools as well as the da Vinci Surgical System. These procedures demonstrate that miniature in vivo robots can address the visualization constraints of minimally invasive surgery by providing video feedback and task assistance from arbitrary orientations within the peritoneal cavity.     

In vivo robotic laparoscopy

Laparoscopy reduces patient trauma but limits the surgeon's ability to view or touch the surgical environment directly. The surgeon's ability to visualize and manipulate target organs can be improved using currently available external robotic systems. However, tool tip orientation and optimal camera placement remain limited because the robot instruments and cameras are still constrained by the entry incisions. Placing a robot completely within the abdominal cavity would provide an unconstrained platform that could provide an enhanced field of view from arbitrary angles and dexterous manipulators not constrained by the abdominal wall fulcrum effect. Several in vivo robots have been developed and successfully tested in a porcine model. These in vivo robots have been used to observe trocar and tool insertions and placement, and to provide additional camera angles that improved surgical visualization. Equipped with a grasper, such robots will provide task assistance. These in vivo robots will be much less expensive than the current generation of large external robotic surgical systems and will ultimately allow a surgeon to be a remote first responder irrespective of the location of the patient.     

Recent in vivo surgical robot and mechanism developments

The surgical landscape is quickly changing because of the major driving force of robotics. Well-established technology that provides robotic assistance from outside the patient may soon give way to alternative approaches that place the robotic mechanisms inside the patient, whether through traditional laparoscopic ports or through other, natural orifices. While some of this technology is still being developed, other concepts are being evaluated through clinical trials. This article examines the state of the art in surgical robots and mechanisms by providing an overview of the ex vivo robotic systems that are commercially available to in vivo mechanisms, and robotic assistants that are being tested in animal models.     

The current state of miniature in vivo laparoscopic robotics

Minimally invasive surgery (MIS) reduces patient trauma and shortens recovery time, but also limits the dexterity of the surgeon because degrees of freedom are lost due to the fulcrum effect of the entry incisions. Visual feedback is also limited by the laparoscope, which typically provides two-dimensional feedback and is constrained by the entry incision. Developments within surgical robotics aim to mitigate these constraints. However, these developments have primarily included large external machines that augment vision and improve dexterity, but are still fundamentally constrained by the use of long tools through small incisions. An alternative concept is the use of miniature in vivo surgical robots that can be placed entirely into the peritoneal cavity through either an abdominal incision, or, after insertion into the stomach through the esophagus, can enter through a gastrotomy. This paper reviews the development of fixed-base camera robots for providing auxiliary views of the surgical field and of mobile robots with a movable platform for vision and task assistance in laparoscopic procedures. Moreover, the progress towards the application of similar robots for natural orifice transluminal endoscopic surgery (NOTES) and forward environments is discussed.     

Current status of robotics in urologic laparoscopy

Urology has continuously embraced novel technologies like laparoscopy that reduce patient morbidity yet maintain an excellent standard of care. Because of limitations on maneuverability, operative vision, manual dexterity, and tactile sense, laparoscopy can be more difficult to perform than corresponding tasks in open surgery. To potentially increase clinical applicability of laparoscopy, robots that enhance operative performance have recently been introduced for a variety of laparoscopic procedures such as laparoscopic radical prostatectomy, pyeloplasty, and even laparoscopic cystectomy and neobladder construction. While these robots have generated excitement and many robotic applications have been described, the benefit of the advanced technology in expanded series of patients remains largely unknown. In addition, the ability of telerobotics to be used by surgeons inexperienced in conventional laparoscopy is also poorly understood. This review compares current features of available robots, advantages and limitations of robots, the emerging clinical applications, and the future potential of robotics in urology.     

Dexterous miniature robot for advanced minimally invasive surgery

This study demonstrates the feasibility of using a miniature robot to perform complex, single-incision, minimal access surgery. Instrument positioning and lack of triangulation complicate single-incision laparoscopic surgery, and open surgical procedures are highly invasive. Using minimally invasive techniques with miniature robotic platforms potentially offers significant clinical benefits. A miniature robot platform has been designed to perform advanced laparoscopic surgery with speed, dexterity, and tissue-handling capabilities comparable to standard laparoscopic instruments working through trocars. The robotic platform includes a dexterous in vivo robot and a remote surgeon interface console. For this study, a standard laparoscope was mounted to the robot to provide vision and lighting capabilities. In addition, multiple robots could be inserted through a single incision rather than the traditional use of four or five different ports. These additional robots could provide capabilities such as tissue retraction and supplementary visualization or lighting. The efficacy of this robot has been demonstrated in a nonsurvival cholecystectomy in a porcine model. The procedure was performed through a single large transabdominal incision, with supplementary retraction being provided by standard laparoscopic tools. This study demonstrates the feasibility of using a dexterous robot platform for performing single-incision, advanced laparoscopic surgery.     

In vivo miniature robots for natural orifice surgery: State of the art and future perspectives

Natural orifice translumenal endoscopic surgery (NOTES) is the integration of laparoscopic minimally invasive surgery techniques with endoscopic technology. Despite the advances in NOTES technology, the approach presents several unique instrumentation and technique-specific challenges. Current flexible endoscopy platforms for NOTES have several drawbacks including limited stability, triangulation and dexterity, and lack of adequate visualization, suggesting the need for new and improved instrumentation for this approach. Much of the current focus is on the development of flexible endoscopy platforms that incorporate robotic technology. An alternative approach to access the abdominal viscera for either a laparoscopic or NOTES procedure is the use of small robotic devices that can be implanted in an intracorporeal manner. Multiple, independent, miniature robots can be simultaneously inserted into the abdominal cavity to provide a robotic platform for NOTES surgery. The capabilities of the robots include imaging, retraction, tissue and organ manipulation, and precise maneuverability in the abdominal cavity. Such a platform affords several advantages including enhanced visualization, better surgical dexterity and improved triangulation for NOTES. This review discusses the current status and future perspectives of this novel miniature robotics platform for the NOTES approach. Although these technologies are still in pre-clinical development, a miniature robotics platform provides a unique method for addressing the limitations of minimally invasive surgery, and NOTES in particular.     

Roboterunterstützte Laparoskopie in der Urologie Radikale Prostatektomie und rekonstruktive retroperitoneale Eingriffe

Complex reconstructive laparoscopic procedures in the field of urology such as radical prostatectomy and pyeloplasty have attracted increased attention in the past 2 years. However, extensive laparoscopic experience is required to master these procedures. Therefore, it remains questionable whether these techniques, which have been shown to be of profit to the patient in the hands of a specialist, will achieve widespread distribution. We have employed computer technology to bridge the gap between open surgery and laparoscopic access and used the daVinci Surgical System to establish laparoscopic radical prostatectomy as well as pyeloplasty and other retroperitoneal procedures at our institution. With experience of more than 70 procedures, we find that with the assistance of the daVinci Surgical System both radical prostatectomy and retroperiteoneal procedures can be easily translated from open to minimally invasive procedures with a considerably shorter learning curve and without compromising patient safety. We expect that large incisions will be soon a thing of the past in urologic surgery. Computer technology, together with mechanical engineering, will play a major role in enabling us to achieve better results despite minimal invasiveness.     

Miniature in vivo robot for laparoendoscopic single-site surgery

Background  

The aim of this study was to develop a multidexterous robot capable of generating the required forces and speeds to perform surgical tasks intra-abdominally. Current laparoscopic surgical robots are expensive, bulky, and fundamentally constrained by a small entry incision. A new approach to minimally invasive surgery places the robot completely within the patient. Miniature in vivo robots may allow surgeons to overcome current laparoscopic constraints such as dexterity, orientation, and visualization.     

Miniature robots can assist in Laparoscopic cholecystectomy

Laparoscopy reduces patient trauma but eliminates the surgeon’s ability to directly view and touch the surgical environment. Although current robot-assisted laparoscopy improves the surgeon’s ability to manipulate and visualize the target organs, the instruments and cameras remain constrained by the entry incision. This limits tool tip orientation and optimal camera placement. This article focuses on developing miniature in vivo robots to assist surgeons during laparoscopic surgery by providing an enhanced field of view from multiple angles and dexterous manipulators not constrained by the abdominal wall fulcrum effect. Miniature camera robots were inserted through a small incision into the insufflated abdominal cavity of an anesthetized pig. Trocar insertion and other laparoscopic tool placements were then viewed with these robotic cameras. The miniature robots provided additional camera angles that improved surgical visualization during a cholecystectomy. These successful prototype trials have demonstrated that miniature in vivo robots can provide surgeons with additional visual information that can increase procedural safety.     

Robotics in colorectal surgery

Minimally invasive surgery has been shown to offer many advantages to general surgical patients but has not been widely adopted for colorectal disease. Initial fears surrounding the oncological safety of laparoscopic colectomies have largely subsided but the technical challenges still remain. Surgical robots or telemanipulators present the laparoscopic surgeon with unrivaled dexterity and vision, which may allow colonic resections to be completed with greater ease. Although initial studies suggest promising results using currently available systems, it will take further time for patient benefits to be proven, therefore justifying the greater expense of operating with this new technology.     

Surgical robotics: impact of motion scaling on task performance

BACKGROUND: Robotic systems have been shown to enhance surgical dexterity, and the advantage has been hypothesized to result from the removal of tremor and addition of motion scaling. But these purported gains over traditional laparoscopic instrumentation have not been quantified. This study was designed to compare the surgical accuracy between conventional laparoscopic instruments and a robotic surgical system and evaluate the importance of tremor filtration (TF) and motion scaling (MS) in these robotic systems. STUDY DESIGN: Fifteen participants with no previous surgical experience were enrolled. To simulate microsurgical techniques, a 29-gauge needle was used to puncture the center of 6 microscopic archery targets (circle diameters 0.5, 1.5, and 2.5 mm). The robotic system was configured to three different degrees of MS and compared with the unassisted laparoscopic platforms in accuracy. RESULTS: Accuracy with robotic assistance with TF alone (1:1 MS) was not significantly different from unassisted laparoscopic control. Both moderate (2.5:1) and fine (7:1) MS significantly improved accuracy over traditional laparoscopic control (p < 0.001 for both). Robotic assistance with MS equalized the performance of both hands (p = 0.03) in precision, and manual laparoscopy demonstrated no statistical difference in handedness (p = 0.80). CONCLUSIONS: Motion scaling, rather than tremor filtration, plays the major role in the enhanced accuracy seen in robotic surgical systems. Robotic assistance with MS significantly improved accuracy above laparoscopic instruments alone and robotic assistance with tremor filtration alone. MS also creates ambidexterity in an otherwise unidextrous population, optimizing the surgeon's ability to undertake tasks requiring microsurgical accuracy.     

Videotape mentoring and surgical simulation in laparoscopic courses

As laparoscopic approaches to core urologic procedures continue to supplant their open counterparts, the demand to train urologists who received inadequate exposure to these techniques during residency has intensified. The acquisition of laparoscopic skills has been aided greatly by the introduction of hand-assisted laparoscopic surgery (HALS). In another training method, participants completed the standard animate and inanimate course training, then entered a mentoring relationship with their instructor, including an observational period and performance of several complex laparoscopic operations with the assistance of the mentor surgeon. However, the time commitment, compensation issues, and need for temporary operating privileges are obstacles to this approach. A number of studies have demonstrated that laparoscopic skills can be measured on a videotrainer and that ability improves with repetitive performance. Senior urologists with minimal initial knowledge may benefit from laparoscopic skills training videotape analysis and critique. Laparoscopic simulators can improve, not only the psychomotor skills required to perform laparoscopy, but operative performance as well. Ultimately, preoperative images and data may be interfaced with robotic simulation software to allow practice of virtual operations with realistic tissue photo-representation prior to performing them on patients. Improvements in laparoscopic surgical simulation and application of these newly acquired skills to a simulated patient will ultimately eliminate the learning curve on actual patients and provide a useful means of establishing competence.     

Robot-assisted single-incision laparoscopic myomectomy: initial report and technique

Single-incision laparoscopic surgery for gynecologic applications has recently been described. Such an ultra-minimally invasive technique is attractive to patients and may have clinical advantages because of the reduced number of abdominal incisions. However, because of its extreme geometrical challenges and instrument crowding, single-incision laparoscopy is such a major deviation from optimum surgical ergonomics that it is unlikely to gain popularity. Robot assistance in single-incision laparoscopy has recently been described for some ablative gynecologic procedures, and it seems to have technical advantages. However, no suture-intensive applications of this technique have yet been reported. We describe our initial experience with robot-assisted single-incision laparoscopic myomectomy and provide essential technical detail to enable successful replication of this technique in the context of an advanced robotic surgical team.     

Robotic resection of pancreatic neuroendocrine tumor

Computer-assisted surgical devices, or "surgical robots," have recently been approved for general surgical use. The device allows the surgeon remote control of multi-articulated instrument arms with a three-dimensional view. Here we report the first known case of pancreatic resection with use of a computer-assisted, or robotic, surgical device. A 46-year old woman presented with back pain and a complex cystic mass in the tail of the pancreas. The daVinci surgical robot was used to remove the lesion en bloc with the tail of the pancreas and spleen. The patient did well and returned to full activity promptly. In summary, robotic technology may enhance advanced laparoscopic procedures. Pancreatic resection is feasible, and future experience will determine the true benefits of this technique.     

Technology Insight: surgical robots--expensive toys or the future of urologic surgery?

There is an increasing demand for minimally invasive surgery, despite any controversy over whether patients benefit from minimally invasive procedures rather than undergoing open surgery. In the field of urology, the performance of more complicated procedures is still a challenge even for experienced laparoscopic surgeons. Recently, robots have been introduced to enhance operative performance, increase applicability and precision of laparoscopy, and improve the learning curve for complicated minimally invasive procedures. With the introduction of master-slave systems where the surgeon is seated remotely from the robot and uses controls to maneuver the mechanical arms placed inside the patient, a new development in robot-assisted surgery has commenced. Several authors have suggested that surgical robots similar to the da Vinci Surgical System (Intuitive Surgical, Sunnyvale, CA), which have three-dimensional (3D) vision and wristed instruments thus giving a greater degree of freedom than rigid laparoscopic instruments, will facilitate the outcome of these more challenging laparoscopic procedures. Whether these features will translate into better functional and oncological results remains to be evaluated. Data published so far clearly suggest that the patient will benefit from less postoperative pain, decreased bleeding and a shorter hospital stay compared with open surgery, and that the surgeon benefits from a faster learning curve than for conventional laparoscopy. For the benefit of our patients and for the development of urology it is vital that we understand both the limitations of telerobotics and when it is appropriate to incorporate these new techniques in day-to-day urologic surgery.     

Minimally invasive pancreatic surgery of the entire gland: initial experience

Many pancreatic cancer surgeons have been slow to adopt minimally invasive pancreatic surgery (MIPS) due a lack of formalized minimally invasive training and the perceived difficulty in dissecting pancreatic tumors and tissue away from the superior mesenteric vessels and consequent concerns for adequacy of oncologic margins and lymph node retrieval. A review of the first 29 MIPS procedures for malignant and premalignant tumors of the pancreas with the aid of a sterilizeable robotically-controlled camera holder was undertaken. As opposed to other robots currently available, this device allows for hand-assistance by the operating surgeon. Fourteen minimally invasive distal pancreatectomies (MIDP) (10 laparoscopic, 3 hand-assisted, 1 converted to open), 13 MIPDs (6 laparoscopic, 5 hand-assisted, 2 converted to open), and 2 laparoscopic central pancreatectomies have been performed. Seventeen (59%) of these patients were treated for cancer. Of these, 11 underwent a MIPD and 6 a MIDP. There were postoperative complications in seven patients (24%) at 30 days. Thirty and 90 day mortality was 3%. A sterilizeable robotically-controlled laparoscope holder that enables the operating surgeon to remain in contact with the patient and have the option of a hand-assisted approach may be particularly helpful for minimally invasive approaches to malignant and premalignant pancreatic tumors.     

Value of the SAGES Learning Center in introducing new technology

Background The Society of American Gastrointestinal and Endoscopic Surgeons (SAGES) Learning Center is a group of educational “classrooms” designed to tutor meeting attendees on specific technology-intensive content areas. The objectives of the Robotics Station were to familiarize participants with basic laparoscopic skills as implemented with surgical robotic assistance and to help them explore the benefits and drawbacks of using robotics in their institutions.Methods Sixty-six volunteer surgeon attendees of the 2003 SAGES meeting representing a diverse group of backgrounds and possessing varying levels of surgical experience were directed through a series of drills on two different surgical robots. Each participant was directed through a series of three drills that practiced surgically relevant skills. Participants were given feedback on their performance. They then completed a 12-question computer-based questionnaire that surveyed their personal demographic backgrounds, their impressions of robotic surgery, and their opinions regarding the learning center’s utility in educating them about new technology.Results Sixty-eight percent of participants had never used a surgical robot, and 89% had never used a robot clinically. Eighty-eight percent of respondents found one or both robots easier to use than they had expected, and 91% found that one or both robots made simple surgical tasks easier compared to standard laparoscopy. Sixty-four percent of participants stated that they were more likely to pursue purchase of a robotic system for use in their practice as a result of their exposure to robotics in the Learning Center. After completing the Robotics Station, 80% of surgeons believed that current surgical robots are of clinical benefit. However, 71% of participants stated that surgical robotic systems priced above $500,000 would not be financially viable in their practices.Conclusion The structured learning environment used in the SAGES Learning Center fostered among participants a positive attitude toward surgical robotics. The format of their exposure to this technology at the Robotics Station also enabled participants to gauge the potential financial value of surgical robots in clinical practice. The SAGES Learning Center Robotics Station succeeded in exposing surgeons to surgical robotics in a way that helped them assess the value of this technology for their individual practices and institutions.     

Laparoscopic and robot assisted radical prostatectomy: establishment of a structured program and preliminary analysis of outcomes

PURPOSE: The technique of laparoscopic radical prostatectomy is difficult to master and is associated with a steep learning curve. We hypothesized that a structured approach to establishing a laparoscopic prostatectomy program would diminish complications during the learning process and that robotic technology would be useful in learning the operation. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A structured laparoscopic radical prostatectomy program was introduced at the Vattikuti Urology Institute on October 23, 2000. One of 2 surgeons with a combined experience of more than 500 laparoscopic radical prostatectomies performed or supervised the first prostatectomies, training a third surgeon with extensive "open" surgical skills but no laparoscopic experience. The "trained" surgeon then started performing the operation independently with robotic assistance. The results of this approach were analyzed at the end of 12 months. RESULTS: We performed 48 laparoscopic radical prostatectomies and 50 robot assisted prostatectomies within the 12-month period. The preoperative and intraoperative demographical variables were comparable in both groups as were the operative times, changes in hemoglobin concentrations, durations of hospitalization, positive margin rates and overall complication rates. All measured parameters were comparable to the "best-in-class" values for laparoscopic radical prostatectomy reported in the literature. CONCLUSIONS: A structured approach minimizes complications during the establishment of laparoscopic radical prostatectomy program. Robotic assistance helps skilled "open" surgeons learn the technique of laparoscopic radical prostatectomy.     

Robot-assisted general surgery

With the initiation of laparoscopic techniques in general surgery, we have seen a significant expansion of minimally invasive techniques in the last 16 years. More recently, robotic-assisted laparoscopy has moved into the general surgeon's armamentarium to address some of the shortcomings of laparoscopic surgery. AESOP (Computer Motion, Goleta, CA) addressed the issue of visualization as a robotic camera holder. With the introduction of the ZEUS robotic surgical system (Computer Motion), the ability to remotely operate laparoscopic instruments became a reality. US Food and Drug Administration approval in July 2000 of the da Vinci robotic surgical system (Intuitive Surgical, Sunnyvale, CA) further defined the ability of a robotic-assist device to address limitations in laparoscopy. This includes a significant improvement in instrument dexterity, dampening of natural hand tremors, three-dimensional visualization, ergonomics, and camera stability. As experience with robotic technology increased and its applications to advanced laparoscopic procedures have become more understood, more procedures have been performed with robotic assistance. Numerous studies have shown equivalent or improved patient outcomes when robotic-assist devices are used. Initially, robotic-assisted laparoscopic cholecystectomy was deemed safe, and now robotics has been shown to be safe in foregut procedures, including Nissen fundoplication, Heller myotomy, gastric banding procedures, and Roux-en-Y gastric bypass. These techniques have been extrapolated to solid-organ procedures (splenectomy, adrenalectomy, and pancreatic surgery) as well as robotic-assisted laparoscopic colectomy. In this chapter, we review the evolution of robotic technology and its applications in general surgical procedures.