Tuning in to kids: an emotion‐focused parenting program—initial findings from a community trial

This study evaluated a new group parenting program, Tuning in to Kids, which taught emotion coaching skills to parents of preschool children. In a randomized control trial, 218 primary caregiver parents of children aged 4.0–5.11 years completed questionnaires assessing parent emotion socialization (emotion coaching vs. emotion dismissing), parent emotional competence, parent wellbeing and child behavior. Assessment occurred at preintervention and 10 weeks later. Parents randomized to the intervention condition (n=107) attended a 6‐session parenting program. Results showed parents in the intervention condition reported significant increases in emotion coaching and significant reductions in emotion dismissing with their children. Child behavior was also reported to improve. Of those with clinical levels of behavior difficulties, more than half were no longer at clinical level postprogram. These findings suggest that an emotion‐focused parenting intervention may assist parents to learn emotion‐coaching skills that have been linked to improved child behavior. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Cortisol stress responses and children's behavioral functioning at school

The present study investigated whether cortisol stress responses of 6‐year‐olds were associated with their behavioral functioning at school. Additionally, the moderating role of stress in the family environment was examined. To this end, 149 healthy children (M _age = 6.09 years; 70 girls) participated in an age‐appropriate innovative social evaluative stress test. Saliva cortisol samples were collected six times during the stress test to calculate two indices of the cortisol stress response: cortisol stress reactivity and total stress cortisol. Teachers assessed children's internalizing, externalizing, and prosocial behaviors. Stress in the family environment was operationalized as maternally reported parenting stress. Results indicated a significant increase in cortisol concentrations in response to the stressor. No significant associations were found between cortisol stress responses and behavioral functioning at school and there was no evidence for moderation by maternal parenting stress. Potential theoretical and methodological explanations for these results are discussed.

     

Psychophysiological correlates of parenting behavior in mothers of young children

This study investigated HPA and vagal functioning as correlates of parenting in mothers of 175 six‐month‐old children. Salivary cortisol indexed HPA functioning and respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) reduction indexed vagal regulation. Positive engagement and negative intrusiveness were observed during the Face‐to‐Face Still Face Paradigm (FFSFP) reunion and a semi‐structured free play episode. Mixed modeling was used to examine differences in maternal behaviors across contexts as a function of psychophysiology. Main effects of cortisol levels, as well as interactions with RSA reduction and context, predicted negative intrusiveness. Mothers with high cortisol exhibited more negative intrusiveness if they also had lower RSA reduction. Mothers were also less negatively intrusive during the FFSFP than the free play if they had lower cortisol levels. There were no associations between psychophysiological measures and positive engagement. The findings suggest: (1) that parenting behaviors are associated with maternal stress physiology; (2) considerations of single physiological systems related to parenting behaviors may be incomplete; and (3) type and context of behaviors must be considered when examining biobehavioral associations with parenting. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Dev Psychobiol 51: 650–661, 2009     

Early parenting predicts hippocampal subregion volume via stress reactivity in childhood

Rodent models indicate that parenting shapes offspring outcomes by programming the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis response to stress and, ultimately, altering brain structure and function. The present study tested this hypothesis and explored possible timing-dependent associations in a longitudinal sample of children (N = 63). At Time 1 (M = 4.23 ± 0.84 years) and Time 2 (M = 7.20 ± 0.89 years), children completed parent–child interaction tasks and a laboratory stressor after which salivary cortisol samples were collected. At Time 2, children also completed a structural MRI. Analyses revealed timing- and region-dependent associations between early and concurrent parenting and cortisol reactivity and hippocampal subregion volumes. Moreover, greater negative parenting during early childhood predicted greater cortisol reactivity three years later, which, in turn, led to reduced left hippocampal tail volume. Findings suggest that the hippocampus is sensitive to environmental influences during early childhood, a result that parallels findings from rodent models.     

SUPPORTING POSITIVE PARENTING IN COMMUNITY HEALTH CENTERS: THE ACT RAISING SAFE KIDS PROGRAM

The present study involves an evaluation of the effect of the American Psychological Association's ACT Raising Safe Kids (RSK) program on parenting outcomes for families served by Community Health Centers. The ACT‐RSK program is a primary family violence and child physical abuse prevention program for parents of young children. Parents were trained in effective parenting including nonviolent discipline, child development, anger management, social problem‐solving skills, effects of violent media on children, and methods to protect children from exposure to violence. Results indicate improved nurturing and positive parenting behaviors and lower rates of psychologically and physically aggressive behavior toward children. These improvements occurred independent of children's age and prior levels of aggression. Use of this model within healthcare settings has the potential to more effectively address parents’ needs for parenting guidance while reducing the likelihood of child maltreatment.     

Prenatal maternal emotional complaints are associated with cortisol responses in toddler and preschool aged girls

Associations between prenatal maternal emotional complaints and child behavioral and cognitive problems have been reported, with different relations for boys and girls. Fetal programming hypotheses underline these associations and state that the early development of the HPA‐axis of the children may have been affected. In the present study, differences in cortisol responses of prenatally exposed and nonexposed children are examined for both sexes separately. Cortisol response patterns of a group preschool aged children that were prenatally exposed to high levels of maternal emotional complaints (N = 51) were compared to a nonexposed group (N = 52). Child saliva was collected at the start of a home visit (T1), 22 min after a mother–child interaction episode (T2), and 22 min after a potentially frustrating task (T3). Repeated measures analyses showed that prenatally exposed girls showed higher cortisol levels across the three episodes compared to nonexposed girls. No differences were found in boys. Maternal prenatal emotional complaints might be related to child HPA‐axis functioning differently for boys and girls. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Dev Psychobiol 51: 553–563, 2009.     

Mother–child adrenocortical synchrony: Roles of maternal overcontrol and child developmental phase

An increasing amount of empirical attention is focused on adrenocortical synchrony as an index of biobehavioral co-regulation between parent and child in the context of early child development. Working with an ethnically diverse community sample of children (N = 99, 50.5% male, ages 9–12), we collected saliva samples from mother–child dyads prior to and after a laboratory-based performance challenge task, and tested whether maternal overcontrol and child age moderated dyadic synchrony in cortisol. Results revealed that cortisol levels between mothers and children were significantly positively correlated at pretask for dyads with mean age and older children only, at 25-min post-task for all dyads, and at 45-min post-task for all dyads. Higher overcontrol/older child dyads exhibited a unique pattern of cortisol synchrony wherein at pretask, mother–child levels had the strongest positive correlation, whereas at 25 and 45 min, mother–child cortisol levels were significantly inversely correlated. These findings contribute to theory and research on parent–child relationships by examining parenting behavior, developmental stage, and adrenocortical synchrony in tandem.     

Emotion regulation and cortisol reactivity during a social evaluative stressor: A study of post-institutionalized youth

In the current study, we compared emotion regulation abilities between post-institutionalized (PI; N = 124) and never-institutionalized non-adopted (NA; N = 172) children and adolescents (7–15 years). We assessed cortisol reactivity and coded emotion regulation during the speech portion of Trier Social Stress Test (TSST-M). Parents reported on their children's social, academic, and behavioral adjustment. Results suggest that emotion regulation abilities increased with age, but this increase was greater for NA than PI youth. With regard to cortisol, piecewise growth modeling revealed that at higher levels of emotion regulation PI youth had greater baseline values (after a period of time allowing for acclimation to the laboratory) and had steeper recovery slopes than NA youth. There was also a main effect of emotion regulation on the reactivity slope suggesting that for both groups, as emotion regulation increased, the cortisol reactivity slope decreased. Finally, greater emotion regulation predicted fewer internalizing behavior problems for PI youth but not for NA youth.     

Infant emotion regulation and cortisol response during the first 2 years of life: Association with maternal parenting profiles

This study investigated the prospective associations among emotion expression, behavioral regulation, and cortisol responses in relation to different maternal parenting behaviors during the first 2 years of the infant's life, among a sample of low-income families. Participants included 1,141 mother–child pairs, assessed when the infants were 6, 15, and 24 months old. Maternal parenting behaviors were observed at the 6-month assessment, whereas infant emotion expression, orienting toward mothers, and cortisol responses were measured using a series of emotion-eliciting tasks at all time points. A latent profile analysis revealed four maternal parenting profiles: Detached, Intrusive, Average, and Engaged. Furthermore, a multiple-group path model revealed distinct patterns of emotion development for infants within different maternal parenting groups. Among children with Engaged and Average mothers, orienting behaviors tended to predict less negative emotion and cortisol responses, which was associated with more future orienting behaviors. Conversely, among children with Intrusive and Detached mothers, orienting behaviors tended to predict more negative emotion and cortisol responses, which predicted less future orienting behaviors. Findings of this study enhance current understanding of how different profiles of maternal parenting behaviors impact infant emotional development in poverty, with significant implications for intervention programs targeting early mother–infant interactions.     

Sleep duration in Mexican American children: Do mothers’ and fathers’ parenting and family practices play a role?

This study examined parenting styles, parenting practices and family practices that may be associated with weeknight sleep duration among 8‐ to 10‐year‐old Mexican American (MA) children. This cross‐sectional study of MA children used baseline data from a 2‐year cohort study of mother–child pairs (n = 308) with additional data on fathers (n = 166). Children's weeknight sleep duration was accelerometer estimated and averaged for 2 weeknights. Parents reported on their parenting styles and practices regarding food and family food‐related practices. Multivariable linear regression analysis was used to examine sleep duration with parenting styles and practices, and family practices, and adjusting for child gender and body mass index. Model 1 included mothers’ parenting styles and practices; Model 2 included both mothers’ and fathers’ parenting styles and practices. Children's average sleep duration was 9.5 (SD = 0.8) hr. Mothers who used pressure to encourage their children to eat and those who used food to control behavior had children with longer sleep duration (β = 0.21, p < 0.01; β = 0.15, p = 0.03, respectively). Mothers who reported their children ate dinner with the TV on and those who valued eating dinner as a family had children with shorter sleep duration (β = ?0.16, p = 0.01; β = ?0.18, p = 0.01, respectively). Fathers who restricted the amount of food their children ate had children with shorter sleep duration (β = ?0.27, p = 0.01). Mothers’ and fathers’ feeding practices, the child's eating dinner with the TV on, and valuing family dinners, played a role in children's weeknight sleep duration among Mexican American families. Parental feeding practices and family mealtime contexts may have an effect on children's weeknight sleep duration.     

Reactions to a health threat: Dispositional threat orientations and message characteristics

Objectives. This study explored the interactive effects of dispositional threat orientation, type of message, and having children on reactions to a message about exposure to bisphenol A (BPA) in plastics. Design. The study used a 2 (message: Fear Arousal or Plain)×2 (parenting status: child or no child)×2 (threat orientation: high or low) mixed factorial design. Methods. Adults (N= 200) recruited via the Internet completed measures of threat orientations, reported whether they were a parent, and read either a low or high fear‐arousal message about the risks of BPA exposure. They then completed measures of reactions to the message (perceived susceptibility to BPA effects, negative emotions, and behavioural intentions to engage in protection). Results. Depending on threat orientations, the fear arousal version of the message and parenthood had strikingly different effects, ranging from no effect (for those high in a control‐based approach) to prompting change (for those low in a control‐based approach) to counterproductive (for those high in an optimistic denial approach). Conclusions. These findings suggest that considering individual differences and their interactions with situational factors could improve both the predictive ability of threat protection theories and the delivery of messages intended to change behaviour.     

Interventions for women prisoners and their children in the post‐release period

Women offenders and their children represent a severely disadvantaged and marginalised population. For many children, the very risk factors that contributed to their own mother's incarceration are present in their current lives, creating an intergenerational vulnerability for poor outcomes. Providing an intensive individualised parenting intervention in the post‐release period may help improve family functioning. The aim of the present study was to ascertain the feasibility and short‐term effectiveness of delivering an intensive multifaceted parenting program, Parents Under Pressure (PUP), to women offenders after release or in low‐security confinement where they were living with their children. Twelve women commenced the program and eight completed treatment. Treatment completion was associated with significant positive change, in particular an improvement in maternal mental health and the quality of the parent‐child relationship, with reductions found in child abuse potential and problem child behaviours. The present results highlight the potential benefits of delivering intensive multifaceted parenting interventions, such as PUP, to women who have been involved in the criminal justice system.     

Maternal early life maltreatment and psychopathology affect the next generation: Alterations in post‐awakening cortisol levels of primary school‐aged children

Early life maltreatment (ELM) has severe and lasting effects on the individual, which might also impact the next generation. On an endocrine level, the hypothalamus–pituitary–adrenal axis has been suggested to play an important role in the interplay between ELM and the development of mental disorders. Several studies have revealed that maternal post‐awakening cortisol concentration, maternal sensitivity, maternal ELM and psychopathology are associated with children's cortisol levels. We investigated the post‐awakening cortisol concentrations in 6‐ to 11‐year‐old children (N = 53) whose mothers either had experienced ELM and had developed a lifetime mental disorder (N = 15 ELM and disorder group), had experienced ELM without developing a mental disorder (N = 12 ELM‐only group), or had neither experienced ELM nor developed a mental disorder (N = 26 HC‐group). Furthermore, we assessed maternal post‐awakening cortisol concentrations, maternal psychopathology, and sensitivity. Multilevel analysis revealed higher cortisol at awakening (S1) levels in children of mothers with ELM and disorder. Maternal cortisol at awakening (S1) also predicted the child's cortisol at awakening (S1), and no effect of maternal sensitivity could be found. The current results replicate an attunement of cortisol levels (S1) between mothers and children and suggest an association between the children's endocrine stress system and maternal factors such as ELM and psychopathology.     

Stability and individual change in depressive symptoms among mothers raising young children with ASD: maternal and child correlates

Mothers raising children with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) evidence elevated depressive symptoms, but symptom stability has not been examined. Mothers (N=143) of toddlers with ASD (77% boys) were enrolled and assessed when their children were 18 to 33 months old and followed annually for 2 years. Multilevel modeling revealed no significant change in group depressive symptom level, which was in the moderately elevated range (Intercept=13.67; SE=.96). In contrast, there was significant individual variation in change over time. Child problem behaviors and delayed competence, maternal anxiety symptoms and angry/hostile mood, low parenting efficacy and social supports, and coping styles were associated with depression severity. Only maternal anxiety and parenting efficacy predicted individual change. Many mothers do not appear to adapt, supporting the need for early intervention for maternal well-being. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Clin Psychol 65: 1–11, 2009.     

The short‐term impact of a problem‐solving skills programme for Iranian parents

Background: The ability of children to solve problems is an important influence on the social‐cognitive development of children. Parents and children who use problem‐solving strategies display more positive parent‐child relationships. It follows that parents will be more effective in promoting the children's development and healthy parent‐child relationships if they are skilled in problem‐solving strategies and encourage their children to use these strategies. Aim: The aim of the present study was to evaluate the short‐term efficacy of a problem‐solving skills program for Iranian parents (the ‘Raising a Thinking Child’ program) on the parent‐child relationship. Materials and method: Sixty‐four mothers of 4–8 year‐old children participated voluntarily in 12 2‐hour weekly workshops over a three month period. Parents were taught a procedure for problem‐solving and provided with the opportunity to consider how the procedure could be applied in response to challenging behaviors of their children. The problem‐solving strategies were taught as an alternative to ineffective approaches such as punishing and reprimanding. Results: Results indicated that teaching problem‐solving skills to parents had a positive influence on a number of dimensions of parenting as measured by the Parent Child Relationship Inventory. Conclusion: Parents who attended the program felt more supported, more involved with their children and better able to balance limit setting and child autonomy.     

Interpersonal motives and social‐evaluative threat: Effects of acceptance and status stressors on cardiovascular reactivity and salivary cortisol response

Social‐evaluative threat evokes increases in salivary cortisol and heightened cardiovascular reactivity. However, the types or content of social threats underlying these physiological responses are not clearly delineated in direct comparisons. Based in interpersonal theory, the present study manipulated high and low levels of acceptance threat (i.e., evaluation of likability, potential for inclusion) and status threat (i.e., evaluation of competence, leadership potential) during a modified Trier Social Stress Test, using a sample of 137 undergraduates (73 women). Both acceptance threat and status threat heightened salivary cortisol, heart rate, and blood pressure responses to the task. Hence, concerns about social inclusion or connection with others and concerns about social standing or status can contribute independently to physiological stress responses.     

Physiological and neuropsychological correlates of approach/withdrawal tendencies in preschool: further examination of the behavioral inhibition system/behavioral activation system scales for young children

This study examined a parent-report version of the Behavioral Inhibition System/Behavioral Activation System (BIS/BAS) scales, a measure of approach-withdrawal motivation, in 170 children between the ages of 3 to 5 years attending Head Start programs. Physiological measures included assessments of baseline salivary cortisol and change in cortisol in response to the assessment session, and resting and suppression estimates of cardiac vagal tone. Cognitive self-regulation was assessed with a peg-tapping measure of inhibitory control and an item-selection measure of cognitive set-shifting ability. Results indicated that higher level of parent-reported withdrawal motivation was associated with cortisol increase and that parent-reported approach motivation tended to be associated with cortisol decrease across the assessment session. Higher level of parent-reported withdrawal also was positively related to cognitive self-regulation while parent-reported approach was negatively related to cognitive self-regulation. Person-oriented analysis indicated that children characterized by both high level of approach and high level of withdrawal tended to exhibit lower resting vagal tone, higher initial cortisol, and minimal cortisol and vagal change. Overall, findings suggest that the parent-report version of the BIS/BAS scales works well as an indicator of children's reactivity to appetitive and aversive motivational stimuli. Directions for future research and implications of findings for the longitudinal study of temperament and personality are discussed.     

Interparental aggression and infant patterns of adrenocortical and behavioral stress responses

Drawing on emotional security theory, this study examined linkages between interparental aggression, infant self‐regulatory behaviors, and patterns of physiological and behavioral stress responses in a diverse sample of 735 infants residing in predominately low‐income, non‐metropolitan communities. Latent profile analysis revealed four classes of adrenocortical and behavioral stress‐response patterns at 7 months of age, using assessments of behavioral and cortisol reactivity to an emotion eliciting challenge, as well as global ratings of the child's negative affect and basal cortisol levels. The addition of covariates within the latent profile model suggested that children with more violence in the home and children who used less caregiver‐oriented regulation strategies were more likely to exhibit a pattern of high cortisol reactivity with moderate signs of distress rather than the average stress response, suggesting possible patterns of adaptation in violent households. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals,Inc. Dev Psychobiol 54: 685–699, 2012.     

Examining Psychobiological Responses to an Anticipatory Body Image Threat in Women

The present study extended the applicability of social self‐preservation theory (SSPT) to an anticipatory body image threat. Women (n = 80) were randomized into either a control or threat group (anticipating having a body composition assessment). Participants completed measures of body shame and social physique anxiety (self‐conscious outcomes), and body dissatisfaction (a non‐self‐conscious outcome), and provided a sample of saliva (to assess cortisol levels) at baseline and immediately following their condition. Findings showed that for the threat condition, body image variables were significantly more negative pre‐ to post‐condition. Findings also showed that self‐conscious outcomes were more sensitive than the non‐self‐conscious outcome. There was not a significant group‐by‐time interaction for cortisol. Findings support SSPT's applicability to the anticipation of a social‐evaluative body‐related threat.     

Sleep quality,cortisol levels,and behavioral regulation in toddlers

This study examines the association between nighttime sleep characteristics and cortisol levels and how these variables relate to aspects of children's temperament and behavior. Twenty‐seven healthy children, aged 12–36 months, attending group childcare settings, participated in the study. Each child's sleep was measured at home with actigraphy over three nights. Saliva samples were collected by the mothers at bedtime and within 30 min of awakening. In addition, both the mother and the daycare teacher rated the child's behavioral difficulties and negative emotionality. It was found that children with more fragmented sleep displayed higher awakening cortisol levels compared to children with more efficient sleep. Moreover, elevated awakening cortisol levels were correlated with teachers' ratings of internalizing behavior and negative emotionality. These preliminary findings suggest that awakening cortisol may serve as a useful index of adrenocortical reactivity in young children, signaling a disturbance in physiological regulation, and underscore the need for more research pertaining to the dynamic associations between sleep and HPA‐axis across the 24‐hr period. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Dev Psychobiol 52: 44–53, 2010