Apolipoprotein E genotype ε4/ε2 in the STANISLAS Cohort Study - Dominance of the ε2 allele ?

Apolipoprotein (apo) E has been discussed as a marker for cardiovascular risk, but information about lipid traits in healthy individuals having one of the rare apoE genotypes (ε4/ε2, ε2/ε2 or ε4/ε4) is scarce. Our work was designed to answer the following questions: 1. Are the allelic effects of ε2 and ε4 on lipid traits additive or dominant? 2. If there is additivity, do the allelic effects of ε2 and ε4 have the same magnitude? 3. Are the allelic effects neutralised in ε4/ε2 individuals who are under the influence of both rare alleles? Allelic effects on apoB and apoE serum levels were codominant. Allelic models are thus not adequate to study the influence of apoE polymorphism on these traits. Allelic effects were additive for total cholesterol, LDL-C, HDL-C and apoAI, with ε2 having a greater impact than ε4. Serum levels differed significantly between ε4/ε2 and ε3/ε3 individuals only for apoE (p < 0ε001) and for apoB (p < 0ε05).     

Association of APOE ε2/ε3/ε4 and promoter gene variants with dementia but not cardiovascular mortality in old age

The common apolipoprotein E (APOE) alleles ε2, ε3, and ε4 are associated with the risk of dementia and cardiovascular disease. Recently, two functional variants (? 219G/T and ?491A/T) were identified in the promoter of the APOE gene that enable a further characterization of the role of the APOE locus in disease. We investigated the contribution of these APOE gene variants to dementia and cardiovascular mortality in old age using a population‐based cohort of 648 subjects aged 85 years and over (Leiden 85‐Plus Study). Genotypes containing an APOE ε4 allele were associated with a 4.1‐fold (95% CI, 2.2–7.7) increased risk of dementia as compared to the ε3/ε3 genotype in old subjects. Moreover, homozygosity for the ?219T allele was found to be associated with a 2.4‐fold (95% CI, 1.0–5.8) increased risk independently of ε2 and ε4; the ?491A/T variant was not associated with dementia. Over a 10‐year follow‐up period, the risk of cardiovascular mortality was not increased among ε4 carriers (RR, 0.6; 95% CI, 0.4–1.0) or ?219T homozygous subjects (RR, 1.1; 95% CI, 0.7–1.7), nor did it decrease among ?491T homozygous subjects (RR, 1.4; 95% CI, 0.6–3.1). In conclusion, both the APOE ε2/ε3/ε4 and the ?219G/T variant were identified as risk factors for dementia but not cardiovascular mortality in old age. Our results support the hypothesis that both the isoform and the amount of APOE may influence the risk of dementia. Furthermore, they emphasize that variation at the APOE locus has a higher impact on the risk of dementia than on the risk of cardiovascular disease in old age. © 2001 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

The α7-nicotinic acetylcholine receptor and the pathology of hippocampal interneurons in schizophrenia

This paper is a review of a recent findings on the pathology of hippocampal interneurons in schizophrenia, with specific emphasis on a protein expressed by these cells, the α7-nicotinic acetylcholine receptor subunit. Convergent information indicates that interneurons in the hippocampus and other forebrain structures are decreased in number and function in subjects with schizophrenia. Among the neurochemical markers that are decreased in the hippocampus are synapsin I, cholecystokinin, somatostatin, glutamic acid decarboxylase, and nitric oxide synthase. GABA uptake sites and the GABA synthetic enzyme glutamic acid decarboxylase are also diminished. Included among these findings is decreased binding of α-bungarotoxin, which binds to low-affinity nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, such as the α7-nicotinic receptor. Co-labeling experiments in rodents indicate that these markers are expressed on overlapping populations of hippocampal interneurons. Thus, the finding of decreased neurochemical function of hippocampal interneurons is a widely replicated finding, with different groups reporting markedly similar findings using independent post mortem samples and different neurochemical strategies. Decreased α-bungarotoxin binding or decreased α7-nicotinic receptor immunoreactivity has also been found in the frontal cortex and in the nucleus reticularis thalami of schizophrenic subjects. The α7-nicotinic receptor subunit gene on chromosome 15q14 is a site of heritability for schizophrenia and bipolar affective disorder, and in, particular, for a deficit in inhibitory neuronal function associated with these illnesses. Thus, the post mortem data are further supported by psychophysiologic and genetic investigations that indicate a deficit in inhibitory interneuronal function, involving the α7-nicotinic receptor. The α7-receptor is a ligand-gated ion channel that admits calcium ions into cells, and it has been proposed to have various developmental roles. Its malfunction may be part of the developmental pathogenesis of schizophrenia.     

T lymphocyte development in the absence of Fcϵ receptor Iγ subunit: analysis of thymic-dependent and independent αβ and γδ pathways

During fetal development, early thymocyte progenitors transiently express low affinity Fc receptors for IgG (FcγR) of both FcγRII and III isoforms. Only the FcγRIII isoform requires association of an FcγRIII (CD16) α subunit with an FcϵRIγ homodimer for surface expression. To address the role of FcγR in ontogeny, we studied thymic development in FcϵRIγ^−/− mice. We find that day 14.5 CD4⁻CD8⁻ double-negative (DN) fetal thymocytes of FcϵRIγ^−/− mice express mRNA of both FcγRIIb₁ and FcγRIII. Surface expression of FcγRII/III is readily detected on these cells. It appears that FcγRIIb₁, whose surface expression is FcϵRIγ independent, replaces FcγRIII during thymic development in these animals. Moreover, subsequent development into CD4⁺CD8⁺ double-positive and CD4⁺CD8⁻ and CD4⁻CD8⁺ single-positive subsets appears normal even in the absence of FcϵRIγ. However, alterations were noted in adult animals among the DN αβ TCR⁺ thymocytes and peripheral splenic DN T cells as well as CD8αα⁺ intestinal intraepithelial lymphocytes (iIEL). In contrast to conventional T lymphocytes, which do not express either FcγRIII or FcϵRIγ, DN αβ TCR⁺ thymocytes and extrathymically derived αβ TCR⁺ and γδ TCR⁺ CD8αα⁺β⁻ iIEL express TCR which incorporate FcϵRIγ as one of their subunits. Consistent with this, the TCR levels of these cells are lower than the TCR levels on cells from wild-type C57BL/6 mice. Despite the reduction in the level of surface TCR, the development of these cells was unaltered by the absence of FcϵRIγ. Thus, we observed alterations in adult DN αβ TCR⁺ thymocytes, splenic DN αβ TCR⁺ and DN γδ TCR⁺ large granular lymphocytes (LGL), and αβ TCR⁺ and γδ TCR⁺ CD8αα⁺β⁻ iIEL, but no detectable changes in their major fetal thymic developmental pathways. Cultivation of peripheral DN αβ TCR⁺ and DN γδ TCR⁺ cells from FcϵRIγ^−/− mice with interleukin-2 generates LGL which mediate natural killer activity. Unlike LGL from wild-type C57BL/6 mice, LGL from FcϵRIγ^−/− mice lack FcγRIII expression and could not mediate antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity through FcγRIII.     

Role of the thymus in the generation of skin-homing αβ and γδ virgin T cells

Current models of lymphocyte traffic suggest that homing specificities of T cells to tissues such as skin are generated outside the thymus as a result of activation of naive T cells by antigen in lymph nodes. Virgin T cells are thought to home to high endothelial venules in lymph nodes, but are thought to be unable to home to extra-lymphoid tissues such as skin. We used the technique of in situ labeling of the thymus with fluorescein isothiocyanate to examine the homing specificities of authentically naive T cells in vivo, immediately after their export from the thymus. We report that homing specificities for skin as well as lymph node are imprinted on T cells inside the thymus, independent of antigen. We also show that both αβ and γδ emigrant T cells exhibit homing patterns to skin and lymph nodes which are identical to those of mature T cells. Our findings demonstrate a key role for the thymus in the induction of skin-homing specificities on T cells indicating that skin-homing specificities of T cells are not generated solely outside the thymus as a result of the activation of virgin T cells by antigen. The migration of thymic emigrants to extra-lymphoid tissues within a few hours of leaving the thymus may have implications for mechanisms of peripheral self-tolerance. This pathway provides an opportunity for direct virgin T cell interactions with self components only expressed in the periphery at a time when emigrants may be more susceptible to tolerance induction than mature circulating T cells.     

γδ cells regulate autoimmunity

γδ cells are attractive candidates for mediators of autoimmune disease. They can expand in germ-free mice, probably through recognition of autoantigens, and γδ-cell-deficient mice, unlike mice deficient in αβ T cells or B cells, show no severe defects in the immune response to foreign antigen challenge. A capacity of γδ cells to effect or regulate tissue damage is also plausible, given their ready localization to tissues, and their myriad of effector functions. Added to this, attempts to reconstruct the physiological course of autoimmune diseases with only autoreactive αβ T cells seem invariably to fall short for lack of other unidentified players. γδ cells and their putative ligands have been linked to autoimmune conditions, and recent experiments confirm that γδ cells play a significant role in autoimmune disease in vivo.     

DL4‐mediated Notch signaling is required for the development of fetal αβ and γδ T cells

T‐cell development depends upon interactions between thymocytes and thymic epithelial cells (TECs). The engagement of delta‐like 4 (DL4) on TECs by Notch1 expressed by blood‐borne BM‐derived precursors is essential for T‐cell commitment in the adult thymus. In contrast to the adult, the earliest T‐cell progenitors in the embryo originate in the fetal liver and migrate to the nonvascularized fetal thymus via chemokine signals. Within the fetal thymus, some T‐cell precursors undergo programmed TCRγ and TCRδ rearrangement and selection, giving rise to unique γδ T cells. Despite these fundamental differences between fetal and adult T‐cell lymphopoiesis, we show here that DL4‐mediated Notch signaling is essential for the development of both αβ and γδ T‐cell lineages in the embryo. Deletion of the DL4 gene in fetal TECs results in an early block in αβ T‐cell development and a dramatic reduction of all γδ T‐cell subsets in the fetal thymus. In contrast to the adult, no dramatic deviation of T‐cell precursors to alternative fates was observed in the fetal thymus in the absence of Notch signaling. Taken together, our data reveal a common requirement for DL4‐mediated Notch signaling in fetal and adult thymopoiesis.     

γδT Cells and Related Diseases

Discovered 30 years ago, γδT cells remain an enigmatic T‐cell subset. Although they account for a small portion of the total human circulating T‐cell pool, their associations with other immune cells and their potential regulatory roles in related diseases have been explored but still require further investigation. γδT cells which are MHC‐unrestricted innate‐like lymphocytes with more unique antigen receptors than αβT cells and B cells are considered to bridge innate and adaptive immunity. They have APC functions and initiate adaptive immunity. Due to their distribution in specific tissues, secretion of Th1‐, Th2‐, and Th17‐type cytokines, and other characteristics, they are involved in a variety of physiology and pathology processes. They are barometers in HIV infection. However, different γδT cell subsets play opposing roles in HBV infections, autoimmune diseases, and several types of tumors. Moreover, decidual γδT cells have protective roles during pregnancies by synthesizing several cytokines. This emerging evidence provides an improved understanding of the immune mechanism of infection, autoimmunity, cancer, and other related disorders and better insights regarding the potential roles of γδT cells in immunological therapeutic strategies.     

Transendothelial chemotaxis of human αβ and γδ T lymphocytes to chemokines

Two subpopulations of human T lymphocytes expressing different antigen receptors, α / β and γ / δ, emigrate into inflamed tissues in distinctive patterns. We compared the transmigration of α / β and γ / δ T cells to C-C and C-X-C chemokines using an in vitro transendothelial chemotaxis assay. The C-C chemokines monocyte chemoattractant protein (MCP)-1, RANTES, macrophage inflammatory protein (MIP)-1α and MIP-1β stimulated similar, dose-dependent chemotaxis of purified γ / δ T cells, whereas MCP-1, RANTES, and MIP-1α pro duced greater chemotaxis of purified α / β T cells than MIP-1β. In contrast, the C-X-C chemokines interleukin (IL)-8 and interferon-γ inducible protein-10 (IP-10) did not promote chemotaxis of either α / β or γ / δ T cells. Three γ / δ T cell clones with differing CD4 and CD8 phenotypes also migrated exclusively to C-C chemokines. Phenotypic analysis of mononuclear cells that transmigrated from an input population of unfractionated peripheral blood mono nuclear cells confirmed the results with purified γ / δ T cells. Our data demonstrate that human peripheral blood α / β and γ / δ T cells can transmigrate to MCP-1, RANTES, MIP-1α, and MIP-1β, and suggest that both T lymphocyte subpopulations share the capacity to emigrate in response to C-C chemokines during inflammation.     

Induction of CD3δεω) by phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate

The effect of phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) on the synthesis, assembly and processing of the components of the T cell receptor (TcR) was studied with special focus on the CD3ω chain. Treatment of the human leukemic T cell line Jurkat with PMA increased the synthesis of the Tiα, CD3γ and CD3ζ chains two-to threefold and the synthesis of Tiβ and CD35δεω complexes five- to sevenfold as assessed by metabolic labeling, immunoprecipitation and sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis followed by scanning densitometry. The amount of total assembled TcR complexes increased approximately threefold and the maturation of the TcR was not affected as determined by analysis of oligosaccharide side chain processing in the Golgi apparatus. Activation of Jurkat cells with anti-CD3 monoclonal antibody, calcium ionophore, or mitogenic lectins did not affect the synthesis of the TcR components. In other cells studied (the human leukemic T cell line CEM, a panel of variants of the Jurkat T cell line and peripheral blood mononuclear cells) PMA also increased the synthesis of the TcR components. However, for all cell lines studied the amount of TcR complexes expressed on the cell surface was decreased after 16 h of PMA treatment. Based on these results we propose a role of CD3ω in retention of TcR complexes. From PMA-treated CEM cells more than 50-fold the amount of CD3δεω complexes was immunoprecipitated as compared to the amount obtained from untreated Jurkat cells, and these observations indicate that the CEM cell line may be a qualified candidate for purification of CD3ω.     

Association of CD33 rs3865444:C˃A polymorphism with a reduced risk of late‐onset Alzheimer's disease in Slovaks is limited to subjects carrying the APOE ε4 allele

CD33 rs3865444:C>A single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) has been previously associated with the risk of late‐onset Alzheimer's disease (LOAD); however, the results have been inconsistent across different populations. CD33 is a transmembrane receptor that plays an important role in AD pathogenesis by inhibiting amyloid β42 uptake by microglial cells. In this study, we aimed to validate the association between rs3865444 and LOAD risk in the Slovak population and to evaluate whether it was affected by the carrier status of the major LOAD risk allele apolipoprotein (APOE) ε4. CD33 rs3865444 and APOE variants were genotyped in 206 LOAD patients and 487 control subjects using the polymerase chain reaction–restriction fragment length polymorphism method and direct sequencing, respectively. Logistic regression analysis revealed a significant association of rs3865444 A allele with a reduced LOAD risk that was only present in APOE ε4 allele carriers (AA + CA versus CC: p = .0085; OR = 0.45; 95% CI = 0.25?0.82). On the other hand, no such association was found in subjects without the APOE ε4 (p = .75; OR = 0.93; 95% CI = 0.61?1.42). Moreover, regression analysis detected a significant interaction between CD33 rs3865444 A and APOE ε4 alleles (p = .021 for APOE ε4 allele dosage and p = .051 for APOE ε4 carriage status), with synergy factor (SF) value of 0.49 indicating an antagonistic effect between the two alleles in LOAD risk. In conclusion, our results suggest that CD33 rs3865444:C?A substitution may reduce the risk of LOAD in Slovaks by antagonizing the effect conferred by the major susceptibility allele APOE ε4.     

CD45RA expression on γδ and αβ T cells emigrating from the fetal and postnatal thymus

We have compared the expression of CD45RA on αβ and γδ T cells emigrating from the fetal and postnatal thymus. The fetal and postnatal thymus export both CD45RA⁺ and CD45RA^- T cells. The number of γδ⁺CD45RA⁺ T cells was remarkably constant regardless of stage of ontogeny or T cell maturity. Around 5--8% of γδ thymic emigrants, thymocytes and peripheral blood lymphocytes expressed CD45RA in both fetal and postnatal animals. In contrast to γδ T cells, up to one quarter of both fetal and postnatal αβ emigrants expressed CD45RA. Post-thymic maturation of CD45RA expression on αβ emigrants, which occurred both before and after birth, appeared to be antigen independent.     

Developmental expression of the αIELβ7 integrin on T cell receptor γδ and T cell receptor αβ T cells

A novel monoclonal antibody, 2E7, was shown by immunoprecipitation to be reactive with the α_IELβ7 integrin and was employed to analyze the expression of this integrin in lymphocyte subsets and during T cell ontogeny. In adult lymph nodes, α_IEL was expressed at low levels by 40–70% of CD8⁺ T cells and < 5% of CD4⁺ T cells. However, virtually all intestinal intraepithelial lymphocytes and ?20% of lamina propria CD4⁺ T cells were 2E7⁺, indicating a preferential expression of this integrin on mucosal T cells. Examination of α_IEL integrin expression during thymus ontogeny revealed that ?3–5% of fetal or adult thymocytes were 2E7⁺. Interestingly, early in fetal thymus ontogeny, ?40% of 2E7⁺ cells expressed T cell receptor (TcR)-γδ and this subset persisted through birth. A developmental switch occurred such that 2E7⁺ TcR^? CD4^?8⁺ cells detected on fetal day 19 were followed by 2E7⁺ TcR-αβ CD4^?8⁺ cells in the neonatal thymus. The latter population persisted throughout thymus ontogeny into adulthood. Interestingly, a subset of TcR-γδ Vγ3⁺ day 16 fetal thymocyte dendritic epidermal cell (DEC) precursors were 2E7⁺, but all mature DEC expressed high levels of α_IEL integrin, suggesting that the α_IEL integrin was acquired late in DEC maturation. This possibility was strenghthened by immunohistochemical localization of the majority of 2E7⁺ γδ and αβ T cells to the medullary regions of the thymus. Overall, the results demonstrate a developmentally ordered expression pattern of the α_IELβ₇ integrin that suggests a common function for this integrin during TcR-γδ and -αβ CD4^?8⁺ T cell thymocyte development or perhaps in effector functions for these subsets.     

Effect of phosphoric acid on the polycondensation of ε-caprolactone with δ-valerolactone and biodegradation of their copolyesters

Copolycondensation of ε-caprolactone (CL) and δ-valerolactone (VL) was performed in the presence and absence of phosphoric acid, in order to clarify the competition between the ring-opening reaction of lactones and the polycondensation of linear compounds produced by this reaction. The gel permeation chromatography data showed that the monomer peaks remained in the system even after 7 h from start of the reaction when polymerized in the absence of phosphoric acid and, on the contrary, in the presence of phosphoric acid the peaks disappear perfectly within 1 h. The weight-average molecular weights (M?_w) of poly(CL-co-VL), obtained by copolycondensation with and without phosphoric acid at 200°C for 1 h, were approximately 540 and 8900, suggesting that phosphoric acid markedly accelerates not only the rate of ring-opening but also the rate of copolycondensation. On the other hand, the biodegradation of the copolyesters obtained is characterized by the action of a lipase-type enzyme, showing a typical parabolic-type degradation pattern.     

Changes in thymic export of γδ and αβ T cells during fetal and postnatal development

The thymus plays an essential role in the generation and selection of T cells and exports approximately 0.5–1% of thymocytes per day in young animals and considerably fewer in older animals. To date there have been no studies directly examining fetal thymic export in any species. Using the technique of intrathymic injection of fluorescein isothiocyanate, followed by an assay for green fluorescent cells in the periphery and for the expression of cell surface antigens on these cells, we have compared directly the export of T cells from the fetal and postnatal ovine thymus. While the thymus exports both αβ and γδ T cells, our results demonstrate that the proportion of thymic γδ T cells that are exported per day is much higher than that of thymic αβ T cells. Moreover, the export rate of γδ T cells increased from approximately 1 in every 60 γδ thymocytes per day emigrating from the fetal thymus to 1 in every 20 from the postnatal thymus. In addition, we identify a population of CD5⁺CD4^?CD8^?γδ^? T cells emigrating from the fetal thymus but greatly reduced among thymic emigrants after birth. These findings have several implications regarding the mechanisms and control of selection of both γδ and αβ T cells.     

Characterization of Complementary Determinant Region 3δ in Human MutS Homologue 2‐Specific γδ T Cells

γδT cells function as sentinels in early host responses to infections and malignancies. Previously, we found ectopically expressed human MutS homologue 2 (hMSH2), recognized by γδT cells, triggered a γδT cell‐mediated cytolysis to tumor cells. However, the characteristics of hMSH2‐specific γδ Τ cells are not fully understood. In this study, we investigated the complementary determinant region (CDR) 3δ diversity of hMSH2‐specific γδ T cells. We found that the CDR3δ sequences of hMSH2‐specific γδ T cells displayed limited diversity, while the length and germline gene usage showed no differences compared with whole CDR3δ immune repertoire. There are more hydrophilic amino acids in P/N insert of hMSH2‐specific γδ T cells including the more conserved amino acid at the position 97. Our results offer clues to understanding antigen recognition pattern of γδ T cells to stress‐induced hMSH2 of tumor cells and also the mechanism of γδT cell‐mediated tumor immune surveillance.