汉滩病毒核酸疫苗滴鼻免疫小鼠效果的实验

目的　观察汉滩病毒DNA疫苗滴鼻免疫诱导机体产生的免疫应答 ,探索汉滩病毒DNA疫苗新的免疫途径。方法　用重组质粒PcDNA3 1B -S1 3 经滴鼻接种BALB/c小鼠 ,采用ELISA、淋巴细胞转化试验及流式细胞仪等方法检测了其诱导的系统和粘膜免疫反应。结果　免疫小鼠血清IgG及粪便IgA明显增高 (P <0 0 1) ,且IgA增幅较大 ;实验组淋巴细胞增殖反应明显 ,刺激指数 (SI)显著增大 (P <0 0 5 ) ;免疫后CD+ 4 、CD+ 8T细胞均增加 (P <0 0 1) ,而CD+ 4 /CD+ 8T细胞比值无显著变化 (P >0 0 5 )。结论　汉滩病毒重组质粒滴鼻免疫能诱导机体产生了特异的系统免疫和较强的粘膜免疫 ,滴鼻的疫苗免疫途径有着潜在的应用价值。     

不同剂量STAg滴鼻免疫小鼠诱导的抗弓形虫感染作用

目的观察不同剂量可溶性速殖子抗原(soluble tachyzoite antigen,STAg)滴鼻免疫小鼠诱导抗弓形虫感染作用,确定STAg滴鼻免疫最佳剂量。方法BALB/c小鼠50只随机分为5组,实验组分别用5μg、10μg、20μg、30μg STAg/只滴鼻免疫小鼠2次,间隔2周,对照组用PBS滴鼻。末次免疫后第14d,用4×104个速殖子/只灌胃攻击全部小鼠,观察小鼠健康和死亡情况,记录体重。攻击后第30d检测粪便IgA和血清IgG,计数脾、脑组织内弓形虫速殖子,分离并计数小肠上皮内淋巴细胞(intraepithelial lymphocyte,IEL)。结果20μg和30μg组小鼠存活率高于5μg、10μg及对照组。攻虫后对照组小鼠体重逐渐降低,而5μg组,10μg组(P<0.05),20μg组(P<0.05)和30μg组(P<0.05)小鼠体重仍呈增高趋势。20μg和30μg组脾、脑组织内虫荷(速殖子数)显著低于5μg、10μg组和对照组(P<0.05),实验组粪便IgA,血清IgG及IEL数量高于对照组。结论不同剂量STAg滴鼻免疫小鼠均可诱导抗弓形虫感染,20μg或30μgSTAg滴鼻免疫可诱导更有效的抗弓形虫感染保护作用     

弓形虫STAg不同途径免疫小鼠诱导的黏膜免疫和系统免疫应答动态变化

目的动态观察弓形虫可溶性速殖子抗原(soluble tachyzoite antigen,STAg)滴鼻和皮下免疫小鼠诱导的黏膜免疫和系统免疫应答。方法6周龄BALB/c小鼠90只随机分为3组,分别以20μg STAg滴鼻或皮下注射免疫小鼠2次,间隔2周,对照组不做处理。末次免疫后1、2、3、4和5周,每组随机处死6只小鼠。ELISA法测定小肠冲洗液sI-gA和血清IgG,分离并计数小肠上皮内淋巴细胞(intraepithelial lymphocyte,IEL)和脾淋巴细胞。结果对照组小鼠小肠冲洗液sIgA水平和IEL数及血清IgG水平和脾淋巴细胞数均维持在较低水平。滴鼻免疫组小鼠小肠冲洗液sIgA水平升高,与对照组比较差异有统计学意义(FsIgA=10.074,FIEL=14.747,P0.01),其中第5周sIgA水平、第2~5周IEL数量与皮下免疫组比较差异有统计学意义(FsIgA=7.862,FIEL=9.807,P0.05)。皮下免疫组小鼠血清IgG水平和脾淋巴细胞数均升高,与对照组比较差异有统计学意义(FIgG=8.207,F脾细胞=11.209,P0.05),第5周脾淋巴细胞数与滴鼻组比较差异有统计学意义(F=6.826,P0.05)。结论20μg STAg滴鼻免疫小鼠诱导的黏膜免疫应答水平优于同剂量的皮下免疫,同时也诱导了较高水平的系统免疫应答。皮下免疫可诱导较高水平的系统免疫应答,但其诱导的黏膜免疫应答较弱。     

细粒棘球绦虫转Eg95-EgA31融合基因苜蓿疫苗免疫BALB/c小鼠后脾T淋巴细胞亚群的动态观察

目的动态观察细粒棘球绦虫转Eg95-EgA31融合基因苜蓿疫苗免疫小鼠后诱导的脾T淋巴细胞亚群的变化。方法热絮凝法提取转基因苜蓿疫苗叶蛋白,将其浓度配制成20μg/μL,132只BALB/c小鼠随机分为3组,用100μL(约含1μg融合抗原)灌胃接种和10μL(约含0.1μg融合抗原)滴鼻接种分别免疫小鼠,每3 d 1次,连续免疫2个月,同时设非转基因苜蓿叶蛋白滴鼻免疫对照组。在末次免疫后0、2、4、6、8、10、12、14、16、18和20周各组随机剖杀4只小鼠,取脾,分离脾细胞,流式细胞仪(FCM)检测脾CD4+和CD8+T淋巴细胞亚群的百分比。结果灌胃接种组小鼠脾CD4+和CD8+T细胞亚群分别在免疫后6~10周和4~12周升高,分别在免疫后6周和8周达高峰,百分比分别为0.294±0.002和0.168±0.027;滴鼻接种组小鼠脾CD4+和CD8+T细胞亚群分别在免疫后4~6周和4~10周升高,分别在免疫后6周和8周达高峰,百分比分别为0.318±0.051和0.197±0.008。结论CD4+和CD8+T细胞亚群在细粒棘球绦虫转Eg95-EgA31融合基因苜蓿疫苗诱导的保护性免疫机制中起重要作用。     

日本血吸虫DNA疫苗pCDSj32在小鼠皮肤组织内的表达及其保护性免疫效果观察

目的用皮内基因免疫注射的方法定位显示重组质粒pCDSj32在皮肤细胞的表达及其诱发小鼠抗日本血吸虫尾蚴攻击感染的保护性免疫效果.方法用生理盐水做媒体,将大量制备的质粒pCDSj32溶至100μg/100μ1,于小鼠尾根部远端1～2cm处进行皮内注射,4wk后取注射部位皮肤,石蜡包埋、切片,用间接免疫荧光法和免疫组化技术观察pCDSj32在皮肤细胞的表达.对照组和100μg/100μ1 pCDSj32单剂量免疫组小鼠各10只,于免疫后4wk,分别用40条日本血吸虫尾蚴攻击感染,计数成虫数和每克肝组织虫卵数.结果 pCDSj32皮内免疫注射后,可在朗罕细胞、表皮的角质形成细胞、真皮的成纤维细胞和毛囊基底细胞的胞浆内表达,表达产物具有免疫原性.与对照组相比,100μg/100μ1 pCDSj32单剂量免疫后4wk,可产生较好的保护效果,减成虫率达38.30%,肝脏组织减虫卵率为56.01%.结论首次用皮内基因免疫的方法证明日本血吸虫DNA疫苗pCDSj32可在皮肤多种细胞内表达,并可诱导小鼠产生较强的抗血吸虫感染的保护力.该免疫方法是继肌肉免疫注射之后又一种颇为有效的基因免疫途径,它将为抗血吸虫感染免疫提供一种模拟生理应答的有效途径.     

日本血吸虫复合表位DNA疫苗免疫保护作用的研究

目的研究日本血吸虫复合表位DNA疫苗诱导BALB/c小鼠抗血吸虫感染的免疫保护作用。方法将40只雌性BALB/c小鼠随机分为4组:pcDNA3.1组(对照组),每鼠经两侧股四头肌注射100μg pcDNA3.1质粒DNA,每侧50μg;TPI组,每鼠肌注100μg pcDNA3.1-TPI质粒DNA;TP组,每鼠肌注100μg pcDNA3.1-T-linker-P质粒DNA;PT组,每鼠肌注100μg pcDNA3.1-P-linker-T质粒DNA。每隔2周加强免疫1次,剂量和方法相同,共免疫3次。末次免疫后4周每鼠经腹部皮肤攻击感染(45±1)条日本血吸虫尾蚴,45d后剖杀,计数成虫及肝脏虫卵数。首次免疫前2 d及感染前2 d尾静脉采血,间接ELISA检测特异IgG及IgG1I、gG2a水平。末次免疫后3周,每组取2只小鼠制备脾细胞,双抗体夹心法检测脾细胞经ConA和rSjCTPI刺激后培养上清中的IL-2I、L-4和IFN-γ水平。结果TP组和PT组小鼠减虫率分别为34.76%和36.14%,显著高于TPI组(P<0.05)和对照组(P<0.01);减卵率分别为51.20%和50.79%,与TPI及对照组比较差异有显著性(P<0.05)。TP组和PT组小鼠血清特异性IgG水平均升高(P<0.05),IgG2a/IgG1的比值分别为4.23和4.34。脾细胞经ConA和rSjCTPI刺激后,IL-2水平TP组和PT组较对照组均升高。结论复合表位DNA疫苗能诱导小鼠产生抗血吸虫感染的免疫保护力,效果优于rSjCTPI疫苗。     

不同剂量弓形虫ESA鼻内免疫小鼠诱导的粘膜及系统免疫应答

目的观察不同剂量弓形虫排泄一分泌抗原（excreted／secreted antigens，ESA）鼻内免疫小鼠诱导的粘膜及系统免疫应答，确定适宜免疫剂量。方法40只BALB／c小鼠，雌雄各半，随机分为5组，每组8只。分别用5、10、20和30μg ESA滴鼻免疫小鼠2次，间隔14d，对照组用20μl/只PBS滴鼻。于末次免疫后第14d，颈椎脱臼处死小鼠，ELISA法检测鼻咽冲洗液和小肠冲洗液sIgA、血清IgG抗体水平，分离并计数肠上皮内淋巴细胞（intest inalintraepithelial lymphocytes，iIEL）、肠系膜淋巴结淋巴细胞（mesenteric lymph node lymphocytes，MLNL）及脾淋巴细胞。结果实验期间，小鼠健康状况良好。随鼻内免疫ESA剂量的增加，特异性抗体水平不同程度的升高，MLNL、iIEL及脾淋巴细胞也显示不同程度的增生性应答。其中，30μg组小鼠血清IgG、脾淋巴细胞数量与10μg组、5μg组和PBS组比较，差异有统计学意义（P〈0．05或P〈0．01）；30μg组小肠冲洗液sIgA、鼻咽冲洗液sIgA、iIEL和MLNL数量，20μg组小肠冲洗液sIgA和MLNL数量与5／2g组及PBS组比较，差异有统计学意义（P〈0．05或P〈0．01）；20μg组血清IgG与PBS组比较差异有统计学意义（P〈0．05）。结论20μg和30μg ESA鼻内免疫能有效诱导粘膜及系统免疫应答。     

弓形虫STAg联合IFN-γ佐剂滴鼻免疫小鼠诱导不同黏膜部位抗体水平动态观察

目的观察弓形虫可溶性速殖子抗原（soluble tachyzoite antigen,STAg）联合IFN-γ佐剂滴鼻免疫BALB/c小鼠后不同黏膜部位抗体水平及其持续时间,为黏膜疫苗研制提供实验依据。方法 84只5~6周龄BALB/c小鼠随机分为免疫组和对照组,每组42只。免疫组以STAg（20μg/只）为抗原加IFN-γ（1 000 U/只）为佐剂滴鼻免疫,对照组以PBS 20μl滴鼻。共滴鼻2次,间隔2周。首次免疫后第0、2、4、6、8、10、12周每组处死6只小鼠,ELISA法测定鼻咽、肺和小肠冲洗液sIgA、IgG水平。结果小鼠用弓形虫STAg联合IFN-γ首次免疫后鼻咽冲洗液sIgA和IgG水平均增高,其中第2、4、6、8周sIgA水平显著高于对照组（P〈0.05）,第2、4、6周IgG水平高于对照组（P〈0.05）;首次免疫后第6、8周小鼠肺冲洗液sIgA水平显著高于对照组（P〈0.05）,第4、6、8周IgG水平高于对照组（P〈0.05）;首次免疫后第2、4、6周小肠冲洗液sIgA水平高于对照组（P〈0.05）,第2、4、6、8周IgG水平高于对照组（P〈0.05）。免疫后不同黏膜部位抗体均以sIgA为主,且以肠道冲洗液最高。结论 STAg联合IFN-γ佐剂滴鼻免疫BALB/c小鼠可诱导鼻咽、肺和小肠黏膜部位产生高水平sIgA和IgG抗体应答,并可持续6~8周。表明滴鼻免疫是弓形虫疫苗的适宜接种途径。     

不同剂量霍乱毒素联合弓形虫ESA小鼠鼻内免疫的佐剂效应

目的观察不同剂量霍乱毒素(cholera toxin,CT)联合弓形虫排泄-分泌抗原(excreted-secreted antigens,ESA)滴鼻免疫小鼠的佐剂效应,探索CT作为鼻黏膜佐剂的适宜剂量。方法 5~6周龄BALB/c小鼠60只,随机分为5组,每组12只,分别以0、0.5、1.0、1.5或2.0μg CT联合ESA 20μg滴鼻免疫小鼠,间隔2周进行加强免疫,共2次。末次免疫后30 d,眼静脉丛采血并颈椎脱臼处死小鼠,用ELISA法检测血清IgG和粪便sIgA水平。分离脾、Peyer’s patch(PP)、肠系膜淋巴结(MLN)淋巴细胞。结果 1.5和2.0μg CT组小鼠健康状况下降、存活率降低。免疫后30 d,小鼠粪便sIgA水平随CT剂量的增加而升高,1.0、1.5和2.0μg CT组小鼠粪便sIgA水平显著高于无佐剂组(P0.05),3组间差异无统计学意义(P0.05)。CT联合ESA鼻内免疫小鼠后MLN、PP和脾淋巴细胞数显著高于无佐剂组(P0.05),并均呈现一定的剂量效应,但较高剂量组(1.0、1.5和2.0μg)之间差异无统计学意义(P0.05)。结论 1.0μg CT联合ESA鼻内免疫小鼠可诱导较高水平的黏膜和系统免疫应答,且对小鼠的健康无不良影响。     

转Eg95-EgA31融合基因苜蓿疫苗诱导小鼠脾T淋巴细胞增殖的研究

目的探讨细粒棘球绦虫(Eg)转Eg95-EgA31融合基因苜蓿疫苗免疫小鼠用Eg原头节攻击后脾T淋巴细胞增殖的变化。方法热絮凝法提取转基因苜蓿的叶蛋白,配成浓度为20μg/μl。分别用100μl(约含1μg融合抗原)口服灌胃和10μl(约含0.1μg融合抗原)滴鼻接种免疫BALB/c小鼠,每3 d 1次,连续免疫2个月。同时设转空质粒(pBI121)苜蓿叶蛋白及正常苜蓿叶蛋白对照组。末次免疫后8周,每只小鼠用50个Eg原头节腹腔注射感染。感染后24周杀鼠,检获包囊并称重,计算囊重减少率;分离脾细胞,体外经Eg粗抗原(EgAg)或刀豆素A(ConA)刺激培养,四甲基偶氮唑盐比色法(MTT法)检测免疫小鼠脾T淋巴细胞增殖情况。结果与正常蛋白对照组相比,疫苗口服灌胃组小鼠检获包囊质量明显降低,囊重减少率为64.1%。两免疫组小鼠的脾T细胞增殖水平显著高于正常蛋白对照组(P0.01);口服灌胃组小鼠的脾T细胞增殖水平高于滴鼻接种组(P0.01)。结论细粒棘球绦虫转Eg95-EgA31融合基因苜蓿疫苗接种可诱导小鼠脾脏T淋巴细胞增殖,口服接种是一种较好的免疫途径。     

Induction of immune responses to SIV antigens by mucosally administered vaccines.

In an attempt to develop an immunization strategy to induce mucosal and circulatory antibodies against SIV antigens, we have investigated the potential of attenuated recombinant vaccinia virus to deliver SIV antigens (gp160 of SIVmac239) to mucosal surfaces of mice. After systemic or mucosal (intragastric, intranasal, or intrarectal) immunization with vaccinia virus-SIV Env recombinants the immune responses against the envelope glycoprotein of SIV, as well as against vaccinia virus antigens, were assessed by ELISA of serum, saliva, and intestinal and vaginal secretions. All immunization routes induced specific antibody titers against gp160 in both serum and external secretions. Recall responses against SIV were found to be acquired after administration of SIVmac239 Env and Gag antigens in a virus-like particle (VLP) form by the same mucosal routes as those used for the priming with recombinant vaccinia virus. The results obtained demonstrate the potential of vaccinia virus recombinants to elicit a primary immune response at mucosal surfaces, which could be enhanced by delivering the same antigen in the form of VLPs.     

Mucosal vaccination strategies for women

Women were immunized orally, rectally, or vaginally with a recombinant cholera toxin B-containing vaccine to determine which of these mucosal immunization routes generate the greatest levels of antibody in the female genital tract and rectum. ELISA was used to measure concentrations of cholera toxin B-specific IgA and IgG antibody in serum and secretions before and after three immunizations. Each immunization route similarly increased specific IgG in serum and specific IgA in saliva. Only the vaginal route increased IgA antibodies in genital tract secretions and could be shown to induce a local IgG response. However, vaginal immunization failed to produce antibody in the rectum. In a similar fashion, rectal immunization elicited highest concentrations of locally derived IgA and IgG antibody in the rectum but was ineffective for generating antibody in the genital tract. The data suggest that local immunization may induce the greatest immune responses in the female genital tract and rectum of humans.     

Plasmid DNA immunization against Japanese encephalitis virus: immunogenicity of membrane-anchored and secretory envelope protein.

Plasmid DNA synthesizing membrane-anchored or secretory Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) envelope (E) protein and premembrane protein was delivered to mice by intramuscular injection or gene gun. Intramuscular plasmid immunization induced anti-E antibody responses similar to those associated with commercial JEV vaccine. The gene gun induced less antibody response. The 2 forms of the E protein induced similar antibody titers when administered by the same delivery mode. Both plasmids generated high titers of JEV-neutralizing antibodies, although the titers were lower than those induced by the vaccine. Intramuscular DNA immunization induced T helper 1 (Th1) immune responses, and the gene gun induced Th2 responses. Compared with secretory E protein, the membrane-anchored protein heavily skewed the immune response toward either Th1 or Th2, depending on the route of immunization. In an intracerebral JEV challenge model, plasmid-immunized mice had approximately 60% protection; this was not affected by the form of the E protein or by immunization route.     

Mucosal immunization of rhesus macaques with Rift Valley Fever MP-12 vaccine

Rhesus macaques given 5 × 10(4) or 1 × 10(5) plaque-forming units (pfu) of Rift Valley fever (RVF) MP-12 vaccine by oral, intranasal drops, or small particle aerosol showed no adverse effects up to 56 days after administration. All monkeys given the vaccine by aerosol or intranasal drops developed 80% plaque reduction neutralization titers of ≥ 1:40 by day 21 after inoculation. Only 2 of 4 monkeys given the vaccine by oral instillation developed detectable neutralizing antibodies. All monkeys vaccinated by mucosal routes that developed detectable neutralizing antibodies were protected against viremia when challenged with 1 × 10(5) pfu of virulent RVF virus delivered by a small particle aerosol at 56 days after vaccination. A single inoculation of the RVF MP-12 live attenuated vaccine by the aerosol or intranasal route may provide an alternative route of protective immunization to RVFV in addition to conventional intramuscular injection.     

弓形虫复合粘膜疫苗滴鼻免疫小鼠诱导的Peyer’s patches持续性细胞免疫应答

目的以可溶性速殖子抗原（soluble tachyzoite antigen，STAg）和霍乱毒素（choleratoxin，CT）佐剂制备的弓形虫复合粘膜疫苗滴鼻免疫小鼠，观察肠粘膜诱导部位Peyer’s patches（PP）的细胞免疫应答及持续时间，探讨其免疫机制。方法BALB／c小鼠96只，随机分为实验组和对照组，实验组以STAg（20μg／只）为抗原，CT（1／μg／只）为佐剂滴鼻免疫，对照组PBS滴鼻。滴鼻2次（间隔2周）后，每组6只小鼠分别于第1、2、3、4、6、8、10、12周处死。计数PP个数，制备PP淋巴细胞悬液，计数并涂片；免疫细胞化学法检测CD4^＋、CD8^＋T细胞亚群。结果实验期间两组小鼠PP数目均无明显变化；实验组免疫后PP淋巴细胞数量明显增生，第2周达高峰，第1、2、3周显著高于对照组（P〈0.05），其中以CD4^＋T细胞增生为主，第1周～第8周高于对照组（P〈0.01），CD8^＋T细胞第1周～第4周显著增高（P〈0.01），CD4^＋／CD8^＋比值无显著变化（P〉0．05）。结论弓形虫复合粘膜疫苗滴鼻免疫BALB／c小鼠可有效诱导肠PP部位持续性的免疫应答，从而激活肠粘膜效应部位淋巴细胞的抗弓形虫感染作用。     

Immunogenicity of attenuated vesicular stomatitis virus vectors expressing HIV type 1 Env and SIV Gag proteins: comparison of intranasal and intramuscular vaccination routes

An experimental AIDS vaccine based on attenuated, recombinant vesicular stomatitis virus (rVSV), when administered by a combination of parenteral and mucosal routes, has proven effective at preventing AIDS in a rhesus macaque model (Rose NF, et al.: Cell 2001;106:539-549). In an effort to determine the optimal route of vaccine administration we evaluated the ability of rVSV-based vaccine vectors expressing HIV-1 Env and SIV Gag proteins, when given either intramuscularly (i.m.) or intranasally (i.n.), to elicit antigen-specific cellular and humoral immune responses, and to protect from a subsequent vaginal challenge with simian-human immunodeficiency virus (SHIV89.6P). Our results demonstrate that macaques vaccinated by the i.n. route developed significantly higher antigen-specific cellular immune responses as determined by MHC class I tetramer staining, IFN-gamma ELISPOT, and cytotoxic T cell assays. However, systemic and mucosal humoral immune responses did not vary significantly with the route of vaccine administration. Given the importance of cell-mediated immune responses in slowing AIDS progression, intranasal delivery of a VSV-based AIDS vaccine may be an optimal as well as practical route for vaccination and should be considered in design of clinical trials.     

Use of recombinant virus-vectored tuberculosis vaccines for respiratory mucosal immunization

Recombinant virus-vectored TB vaccines represent the most promising vaccine platform for boosting the protective immunity mediated by parenteral BCG prime immunization. A major advantage associated with virus-vectored vaccines is that they are potent respiratory mucosa-deliverable vaccines. A recombinant replication-deficient adenoviral (Ad) vector was engineered to express Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M.tb) Ag85A. Single administration of this Ad vaccine via the intranasal, but not intramuscular, route provided potent immune protection from pulmonary M.tb challenge. Respiratory mucosal boosting immunization with Ad vaccine was effective in enhancing T-cell activation and immune protection following parenteral DNA or BCG prime immunization. We have also recently developed a recombinant vesicular stomatitis virus-vectored (VSV) TB vaccine. Ad and VSV vector systems will be complementary to each other for BCG prime-virus vaccine boost immunization protocols.     

The mucosal and systemic immune responses elicited by a chitosan-adjuvanted intranasal influenza H5N1 vaccine

Please cite this paper as: Svindland et al. The mucosal and systemic immune responses elicited by a chitosan‐adjuvanted intranasal influenza H5N1 vaccine. Influenza and Other Respiratory Viruses DOI:10.1111/j.1750‐2659.2011.00271.x. Background Development of influenza vaccines that induce mucosal immunity has been highlighted by the World Health Organisation as a priority (Vaccine 2005;23:1529). Dose‐sparing strategies and an efficient mass‐vaccination regime will be paramount to reduce the morbidity and mortality of a future H5N1 pandemic. Objectives This study has investigated the immune response and the dose‐sparing potential of a chitosan‐adjuvanted intranasal H5N1 (RG‐14) subunit (SU) vaccine in a mouse model. Methods Groups of mice were intranasally immunised once or twice with a chitosan (5 mg/ml)‐adjuvanted SU vaccine [7·5, 15 or 30 μg haemagglutinin (HA)] or with a non‐adjuvanted SU vaccine (30 μg HA). For comparison, another group of mice were intranasally immunised with a whole H5N1 (RG‐14) virus (WV) vaccine (15 μg HA), and the control group consisted of unimmunised mice. Results The chitosan‐adjuvanted SU vaccine induced an immune response superior to that of the non‐adjuvanted SU vaccine. Compared with the non‐adjuvanted SU group, the chitosan‐adjuvanted SU vaccine elicited higher numbers of influenza‐specific antibody‐secreting cells (ASCs), higher concentrations of local and systemic antibodies and correspondingly an improved haemagglutination inhibition (HI) and single radial haemolysis (SRH) response against both the homologous vaccine strain and drifted H5 strains. We measured a mixed T‐helper 1/T‐helper 2 cytokine response in the chitosan‐adjuvanted SU groups, and these groups had an increased percentage of virus‐specific CD4⁺ T cells producing two Thelper 1 (Th1) cytokines simultaneously compared with the non‐adjuvanted SU group. Overall, the WV vaccine induced higher antibody concentrations in sera and an HI and SRH response similar to that of the chitosan‐adjuvanted SU vaccine. Furthermore, the WV vaccine formulation showed a stronger bias towards a T‐helper 1 profile than the SU vaccine and elicited the highest frequencies of CD4⁺ Th1 cells simultaneously secreting three different cytokines (INFγ⁺, IL2⁺ and INFα⁺). As expected, two immunisations gave a better immune response than one in all groups. The control group had very low or not detectable results in the performed immunoassays. Conclusion The cross‐clade serum reactivity, improved B‐ and T‐cell responses and dose‐sparing potential of chitosan show that a chitosan‐adjuvanted intranasal influenza vaccine is a promising candidate vaccine for further preclinical development.     

Mucosal immunization with inactivated human immunodeficiency virus plus CpG oligodeoxynucleotides induces genital immune responses and protection against intravaginal challenge

Vaccines capable of protecting against sexually transmitted infections, such as human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), will depend on the induction of potent long-lasting mucosal immune responses in the genital tract. We evaluated vaginal and systemic immune responses and protection from vaginal challenge elicited after intranasal immunization of mice with inactivated glycoprotien 120-depleted HIV-1 immunogen alone or in combination with immunostimulatory CpG oligodeoxynucleotides (ODNs). Mice immunized with HIV-1 immunogen plus CpG ODN had significantly enhanced levels of anti-protein 24 immunoglobulin (Ig) G and IgA antibodies in serum and vaginal washes and increased production of beta-chemokines and interferon-gamma, compared with mice immunized with HIV-1 immunogen alone or with control ODN. Furthermore, mice intranasally immunized with HIV-1 immunogen plus CpG were protected against intravaginal challenge with a recombinant vaccinia virus expressing HIV-1 gag. These results indicate that mucosal immunization with whole-killed HIV-1 plus CpG ODN may be an effective means of inducing local immunity and protection against genital infection.