边缘性病灶切除术治疗重度脊柱结核

目的 探讨前路结核病灶边缘性切除术治疗重度脊柱结核伴后凸畸形与截瘫的疗效.方法 对2000年5月～2005年6月收治32例伴有后凸畸形与截瘫的重度胸腰椎结核,采用前路结核病灶边缘性切除术,同时用钛网和钢板重建脊柱稳定性,观察术后植骨融合、畸形矫正、截瘫恢复及结核病灶愈合情况.结果 植骨平均融合时间为6个月,融合率100%.在胸段、胸腰段及腰段后凸畸形分别平均纠正29°、25°及19°,随访时矫正度丢失＜10°.伴截瘫者11例,Frankel神经功能达到E级.本组脊柱结核均治愈.结论 前路结核病灶边缘性切除术治疗重度脊柱结核,可彻底清除病灶,畸形矫正效果好,骨性融合时间短,减压彻底,结核病灶无复发.     

陈旧性胸腰椎结核后凸畸形继发截瘫的危险因素分析

目的 总结陈旧结核性胸腰椎后凸畸形患者的病例特点,分析其继发截瘫的危险因素.方法 以自1995年3月至2006年12月确诊陈旧结核性胸腰椎后凸畸形并住院手术治疗者为研究对象,回顾性总结其病例资料,对比分析截瘫与未截瘫组的性别、胸腰椎结核发病年龄、病程、病变导致塌陷并融合的椎体数、后凸顶点所在节段、后凸角度、既往病灶清除手术史等因素的差异.结果 22例均于胸腰椎结核发病后半年至2年出现胸腰椎后凸畸形,后凸畸形缓慢进行性加重,后凸角度(Cobb法)平均90.7°(48°～130°),15例继发不全截瘫,7例无脊髓功能异常.15例不全截瘫者中,男9例,女6例,确诊胸腰椎结核年龄平均8.4岁(1～33岁),病程平均24.4年(4～52年),术前后凸角度平均86.8°(48°～120°),7例曾行病灶清除术.7例未截瘫者中,男3例,女4例,确诊胸腰椎结核年龄平均6.4岁(1～22岁),病程平均13.4年(7～26年),术前后凸角度平均97.6°(73°～130°),4例曾行病灶清除术.按其后凸顶点所在节段分组,上胸椎(T1-4)后凸者100%继发截瘫(5/5例),中胸椎(T5-8)后凸者80%继发截瘫(4/5例),胸腰段(T1-L1)后凸者50%继发截瘫(6/12例).统计学分析结果显示两组的结核病程、后凸顶点所在节段、塌陷椎体数差异有统计学意义(P＜0.05),两组的后凸角度差异无统计学意义(P＞0.05).结论 对于45°以上的重度陈旧结核性胸腰椎后凸畸形,尤其是青少和中、上胸椎后凸者,建议尽早手术治疗;对于重度陈旧结核性胸腰椎后凸畸形而言,其后凸顶点所在节段越靠近头端,塌陷椎体数越少,继发截瘫的危险性越高.     

经胸前路病灶清除减压治疗胸椎结核并后凸畸形

目的:总结经胸前路病灶清除减压植骨内固定治疗胸椎结核截瘫并后凸畸形的临床疗效。方法:22例胸椎结核截瘫并后凸畸形患者,男12例,女10例,临床表现均有胸背痛、截瘫及脊柱后凸畸形,脊柱后凸角Cobb角为20～40°,平均25°。结核病损部位:T3～51例,T3～43例,T4～54例,T4～61例,T6～72例,T7～83例,T8～93例,T9～102例,T10～113例。ASIA分级:B级3例,C级11例,D级8例。MRI示椎管内均有压迫。9例行肩胛下经胸前路病灶清除矫形植骨内固定术,13例常规经胸病灶清除矫形植骨内固定术。术后继续抗痨治疗9～12个月。结果:22例患者切口均一期愈合,无肺部感染、呼吸衰竭等并发症。术后随访2～4年,14例在术后4周内瘫痪完全恢复,8例3个月内完全恢复。所有患者胸背痛消失,植骨融合,平均融合时间4个月,无1例结核复发,术后脊柱后凸Cobb角平均矫正18°,随访期间畸形矫正无丢失。结论:经胸前路病灶清除植骨内固定治疗胸椎结核截瘫并后凸畸形,能够一期完成病灶清除、脊髓减压、后凸畸形矫正和脊柱稳定性重建,是一种安全有效的治疗方法。     

边缘性病灶切除术治疗重度脊柱结核

目的：探讨前路结核病灶边缘性切除术治疗重度脊柱结核伴后凸畸形与截瘫的疗效。方法：收集2000年5月-2005年6月间32例伴有后凸畸形与截瘫的重度胸腰椎结核病人，采用前路结核病灶边缘性切除术，同时用钛网和钢板重建脊柱稳定性，观察术后植骨融合、畸形矫正、截瘫恢复及结核病灶愈合情况。结果：平均随访3．5年，30例患者获访，平均融合时间为6个月。骨性融合率100％。在胸段、胸腰段及腰段后凸畸形分别平均纠正29°、25°及19°，随访时矫正度丢失〈10°：伴截瘫者11例，Frankel神经功能达到E级；本组脊柱结核均治愈。结论：前路结核病灶边缘性切除术治疗重度脊柱结核，可彻底清除病灶，畸形矫正效果好，骨性融合时间短，减压彻底，结核病灶无复发。     

侧前方病灶清除人工椎体置换术治疗胸椎结核后凸畸形

目的:探讨脊柱侧前方病灶清除椎间轴套式钛合金人工椎体置换治疗胸椎结核并后凸畸形的疗效。方法:胸椎结核并后凸畸形患者19例,后凸Cobb角15°～30°,平均25°,7例患者合并脊髓压迫,Frankel分级C级3例,D级4例。手术方法为一期侧前方病灶清除椎间轴套式钛合金人工椎体置换,置换的人工椎体内置入松质骨。术后抗结核药物治疗9个月。结果:随访2～3年,平均2年4个月。切口均一期愈合,椎体无滑脱,胸椎结核全部治愈,脊髓功能损害者术后1年内完全恢复。术后后凸Cobb角平均8°,平均矫正17°,随访期间畸形矫正无明显丢失。结论:胸椎结核侧前方病灶清除人工椎体置换术治疗胸椎结核并后凸畸形效果较好,能够一期完成病灶清除、脊髓减压、脊柱稳定性重建和后凸畸形矫正。     

脊柱结核病灶治愈型截瘫39例报告

目的:探讨脊柱结核病灶治愈型截瘫的诊断标准、治疗和预防。方法:回顾性分析39例经本院确诊为脊柱结核病灶治愈型截瘫患者的临床资料及治疗结果。结果:39例中有34例行手术治疗,其中19例完全恢复,10例部分恢复,4例无变化,1例加重;未手术5例均无明显改善。结论:脊柱结核病灶治愈型截瘫是结核治愈后的晚期并发症,有其本身的特性,手术治疗可取得较好效果。     

病变治愈型脊柱结核脊柱后凸畸形及脊髓压迫的外科治疗

[目的]探讨胸腰段病变治愈型脊柱结核合并脊柱后凸畸形及脊髓压迫的外科治疗方法。[方法]对17例胸腰段病变治愈型脊柱结核分别采用单纯后路植骨融合3例，后路椎弓根螺丝钉固定及后路植骨融合术8例，椎体侧前方椎管减压6例，其中行单纯椎体侧方植骨融合术3例，辅以椎体侧方钢板内固定3例。[结果]术后随访时间9个月～7a6个月，平均4．2a。后路植骨平均骨融合时间为2．8个月，椎体侧方植骨平均骨性融合时间为3．3个月，椎管侧前方减压6例中1例神经根刺激症状完全消失，3例大部分改善，2例症状加重并伴单侧下肢肌力1～2级减退。[结论]胸腰段病变治愈型脊柱结核合并脊柱后凸畸形临床上有时并不合并严重的脊髓压迫症状，外科治疗目的在于防止脊柱后凸畸形进一步加重及避免继发性截瘫，而过分强调椎管完全减压及脊柱后凸畸形矫正会导致严重的脊髓功能受损。     

肩胛下经胸前路病灶清除减压植骨内固定治疗上胸椎结核并截瘫

目的:探讨肩胛下经胸前路一期病灶清除减压植骨内固定治疗上胸椎结核并截瘫和后凸畸形患者的临床疗效。方法:自1999年1月~2003年1月共收治9例上胸椎结核并截瘫和后凸畸形患者,术前常规使用抗结核药联合化疗2~3周,并纠正贫血及低蛋白血症。采用肩胛下经胸前路病灶清除、椎管减压、一期椎间植骨融合和内固定术,5例使用切下的肋骨或自体髂骨植骨,4例使用充填松质骨颗粒的钛网植骨。应用“K”形钢板内固定4例,中华长城单棒系统4例,Ventrofixx系统1例。术后继续抗痨治疗9~12个月。结果:手术时间平均4h,手术失血量平均1200ml。9例患者切口均一期愈合,无肺部感染、呼吸衰竭等并发症。术后随访18~36个月,平均24个月。所有患者胸背痛消失,植骨骨性融合,融合时间3~6个月,平均4个月,6例患者在术后4周内瘫痪完全恢复,3例3个月内完全恢复。未见结核复发,术后脊柱后凸Cobb角平均矫正了16°,随访期间畸形矫正无明显丢失。结论:肩胛下经胸前路一期病灶清除减压植骨内固定治疗上胸椎结核并截瘫和后凸畸形可缩短治疗时间,提高脊柱结核治愈率。     

侧前方病灶清除椎弓根内固定治疗胸椎结核后凸畸形

目的观察侧前方病灶清除椎间植骨经椎弓根内固定术治疗脊柱结核并后凸畸形的疗效。方法胸椎结核并后凸畸形患者17例,男11例,女6例;年龄23～56岁,平均36.4岁。结核病损位于下胸椎,累及两或三个椎体。后凸成角15°～34°,平均25°。5例患者合并脊髓损伤,Frankel分级为C级2例、D级3例。手术方法为一期侧前方病灶清除椎间植骨经椎弓根内固定,抗结核药物治疗9个月。结果术后随访2~4年,切口一期愈合,椎间植骨全部融合,脊柱结核全部治愈,脊髓功能损害患者术后1年内完全恢复。术后后凸成角平均为7°,平均矫正18°,随访期间畸形矫正无明显丢失。结论侧前方病灶清除椎弓根内固定术治疗脊柱结核并后凸畸形,能够一期完成病灶清除、脊髓减压、脊柱稳定性重建和后凸畸形矫正。坚强的内固定可促进病椎植骨融合,有助于缩短术后药物治疗时间和提高脊柱结核治愈率。     

前路内固定治疗胸腰椎结核伴后凸畸形与截瘫

目的：探讨前路植骨内固定治疗胸腰段脊柱结核伴后凸畸形与截瘫的疗效。方法：1996年～2002年4月采用前路病灶清除，植骨内固定治疗胸腰椎结核伴后凸畸形与截瘫62例，观察术后植骨融合、畸形矫正、截瘫恢复及结核病灶愈合情况。结果：平均随访2年2个月，56例患者获访，平均融合时间为3．6个月。骨性融合率100％。在胸段、胸腰段及腰段后凸畸形分别平均纠正29°、15°及9°，随访时无矫正度丢失；伴截瘫者11例，Frankel神经功能平均恢复2级；本组脊柱结核均治愈。结论：一期前路病灶清除植骨内固定，融合时间短，畸形矫正效果好，减压彻底，有利于截瘫恢复。     

Vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction during major abdominal surgery

Background : We investigated the vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction (MT) with hypotension due to prostacyclin (PGI₂) release in patients undergoing abdominal surgery with a combined general and epidural anesthesia. Methods : In a prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled study we administered 400 mg ibuprofen (i.v.) in 42 patients scheduled for abdominal surgery. General anesthesia was combined with epidural anesthesia (T4-L1). Before as well as 5, 15, 30, 45, and 90 min after MT we recorded plasma osmolality, hemodynamics and measured 6-keto-PGFlα (stabile metabolite of PGI₂), TXB₂ (stabile metabolite of thromboxane A₂) active renin, and arginine vasopressin (AVP) plasma concentrations by radioimmunoassay. Catecholamine levels were assessed by high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) with electrochemical detection. Results : Following MT, arterial hypotension occurred along with a substantial PGI₂ release. This was completely abolished by ibuprofen administration. Although plasma levels of 6-keto-PGF_1α (1133 (708) vs. 60 (3) ng/L, median (median absolute deviation), P=0.0001, placebo vs. ibuprofen) remained significantly elevated, blood pressure was restored within 30 min after MT in the placebo group. At the same point in time plasma concentrations of TXB² (164 (87) vs. 58 (1) ng/L, P=0.0001), epinephrine (46 (33) vs. 14 (6) ng/L, P=0.001), AVP (41 ± (18) vs. 12 (7) ng/L, P=0.0004), and active renin (27 (12) vs. 12 (4) ng/L, P = 0.001) were significantly higher in placebo-treated patients. Conclusion : Under combined general and epidural anesthesia arterial hypotension following MT due to endogenous PGI₂ release is associated with enhanced release of AVP, active renin, epinephrine and thromboxane A₂, presumably contributing to hemodynamic stability within 30 min after MT.     

A Teaspoon Pump for Pumping Blood with High Hydraulic Efficiency and Low Hemolysis Potential

Abstract: Virtually all blood pumps contain some kind of rubbing, sliding, closely moving machinery surfaces that are exposed to the blood being pumped. These valves, internal bearings, magnetic bearing position sensors, and shaft seals cause most of the problems with blood pumps. The original teaspoon pump design prevented the rubbing, sliding machinery surfaces from contacting the blood. However, the hydraulic efficiency was low because the blood was able to "slip around" the rotating impeller so that the blood itself never rotated fast enough to develop adequate pressure. An improved teaspoon blood pump has been designed and tested and has shown acceptable hydraulic performance and low hemolysis potential. The new pump uses a nonrotating "swinging" hose as the pump impeller. The fluid enters the pump through the center of the swinging hose; therefore, there can be no fluid slip between the revolving blood and the revolving impeller. The new pump uses an impeller that is comparable to a flexible garden hose. If the free end of the hose were swung around in a circle like half of a jump rope, the fluid inside the hose would rotate and develop pressure even though the hose impeller itself did not "rotate"; therefore, no rotating shaft seal or internal bearings are required.     

Microspheres Based Detoxification System: A New Method in Convective Blood Purification

Abstract: A variety of protein-bound or hydrophobic substances, accumulating as a result of pathologic conditions such as exogenous or endogenous intoxications, are removed poorly by conventional detoxification methods because of low accessibility (hemodialysis), insufficient adsorption capabilities (hemosorption), low efficiency (peritoneal dialysis), or economic limitations (high-volume plasmapheresis). Combining advantages of existing methods with microspheric technology, a module-based system was designed. Major operating parameters of the latter can be modified to allow for adjustment to individual clinical situations. An extracorporeal blood circuit including a plasmafilter is combined with a secondary high-velocity plasma circuit driven by a centrifugal pump. Different microspheric adsorbers can be combined in one circuit or applied in sequence. Thus, a prolonged treatment can be tailored using specially designed selective adsorber materials. Comparing this system with existing methods (high-flux hemodialysis, molecular adsorbent recycling system), results from our in vitro studies and animal experiments demonstrate the superior efficiency of substance removal.     

Tissue perfusion in relation to cardiac output during continuous positive-pressure ventilation and administration of propranolol or verapamil

Background : Our objective was to determine whether administration of propranolol or verapamil modifies the hemodynamic adaptation to continuous positive-pressure ventilation (CPPV), in particular the regional distribution of cardiac output (CO).
Methods : General hemodynamics and regional blood flows assessed by microsphere technique (15 (μm) were recorded in 16 anesthetized pigs during spontaneous breathing (SB) and CPPV with 8 cm H₂O end-expiratory pressure (CPPV8) before and after intravenous administration of propranolol (0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.15 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8) or verapamil (0.1 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8).
Results : CPPV8 depressed CO by 25% without shifts in its relative distribution with the exception of a noteworthy increase in adrenal perfusion. Propranolol increased arterial blood pressure, and due to a fall in heart rate, CO dropped by 25%. The kidneys and, to a lesser extent, the splanchic region and central nervous system received increased fractions of the remaining CO at the expense of skeletal muscle flow. Similar patterns were seen during SB and CPPV8 such that the combination of propranolol and CPPV8 depressed CO by 50%. The circulatory effects of verapamil were less evident but myocardial perfusion tended to increase.
Conclusions : The combination of propranolol or verapamil with CPPV does not result in any specific hemodynamic interaction in anesthetized pigs, except that the combined effect of propranolol and CPPV may severely reduce CO.     

Bariatric Surgery in Some "Central and East-European (former Eastern bloc)"Countries - Current Status and Prediction for the Next Millennium

Background: Obesity is increasing globallly, including in the formerly "Eastern Bloc" countries. Methods: A survey was made of obesity and bariatric surgery. Results: In the 8 East and Central European countries studied, with total population 300 million, roughly 43% of the population was overweight (BMI 25-30), 23% obese (BMI > 30), with about 15 million people morbidly obese (BMI > 40). From 0-10 morbidly obese individuals/100,000/year undergo bariatric surgery. Conclusion: Most countries were found to provide inadequate treatment for obesity.The majority of the morbidly obese are not treated effectively. However, health-care awareness of obesity and bariatric surgeons are slowly increasing.     

Volatile anaesthetics reduce adhesion of blood platelets under low-flow conditions in the coronary system of isolated guinea pig hearts

Background : Inhibitory effects of volatile anaesthetics on platelet aggregation have been demonstrated in several studies. However, the influence of volatile anaesthetics on intracoronary platelet adhesion has not been elucidated so far.
Methods : Isolated hearts of guinea pigs were perfused with buffer in the absence or presence of volatile anaesthetics (0.5 and 1 MAC) at constant coronary flow rates of 5 ml/min for 25 min, then 1 ml/min for 30 min and again 5 ml/min for 10 min. Before, during and after low-flow perfusion, a bolus of human platelets was applied into the coronary system. To simulate thrombogenic conditions, 0.3 U/ml human thrombin was infused during low-flow perfusion and reperfusion. The number of platelets sequestered to the endothelium was calculated from the difference between coronary in- and output of platelets. The myocardial production of lactate and consumption of pyruvate and coronary perfusion pressure were also determined.
Results : At a flow rate of 5 ml/min only about 3% of the applied platelets did not emerge from the coronary system, in any group. In contrast, 13.1±1.2% (mean±SEM) of infused platelets became adherent in low-flow perfusion in the control group without anaesthetic. The adherence was reduced with each 1 MAC isoflurane (to 6.2±1.2%), sevoflurane (to 4.4±0.9%) or halothane (to 3.2±1.5%) (each P <0.05 vs. control). Volatile anaesthetic, 0.5 MAC, did not inhibit platelet adhesion to a statistically significant extent in any case. Perfusion pressure and metabolic parameters were not statistically different between the control and the hearts exposed to anaesthetics.
Conclusion : Volatile anaesthetics in a concentration of 1 MAC can reduce the adhesion of platelets in the coronary system under reduced flow conditions. This action does not arise from vasodilation or inhibition of ischaemic stress.     

Synergistic interaction between the effects of propofol and midazolam with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity in rabbits

Background: It has been shown that the depressive effects of both propofol and midazolam on consciousness are synergistic with opioids, but the nature of their interactions on other physiological systems, e. g. respiration, has not been fully investigated. The present study examined the effect of propofol and midazolam alone and in combination with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity (PNA) and whether such interactions are additive or synergistic. Methods: PNA was recorded in 27 anaesthetised and artificially ventilated rabbits. In three groups, propofol, fentanyl and midazolam were administered intravenously in incremental doses to construct dose-response curves for the depressant effects of each one on PNA. In another two groups, the effect of pretreatment with either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. on the effects of propofol and fentanyl respectively on PNA were studied. Results: Propofol and fentanyl caused a dose-dependent depression of PNA with complete abolition at the highest total doses of 16 mg · kg^?1 i. v. and 32 μg · kg^?1 i. v., respectively. In contrast, midazolam in incremental doses to a total of 0.8 mg · kg^?1 reduced mean PNA by 63%, but approximately 12% of PNA remained at a total dose as high as 6.4 mg · kg^?1. The mean ED₅₀s, calculated from dose-response curves, were 5.4 mg · kg^?1, 3.9 μg · kg^?1 and 0.4 mg · kg^?1 for propofol, fentanyl and midazolam, respectively. Initial doses of either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. acted synergistically with subsequent doses of either propofol or fentanyl to abolish PNA at total doses of 8 mg · kg^?1 and 8 μg · kg^?1, respectively. Conclusion: Fentanyl has a synergistic interaction with both propofol and midazolam on PNA and hence potentially on respiration.     

Influence of dopexamine hydrochloride on haemodynamics and regulators of circulation in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery

Background: Catecholaminergic support is often used to improve haemodynamics in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery. Dopexamine is a synthetic vasoactive catecholamine with beneficial microcirculatory properties. Methods: The influence of perioperative administration of dopexamine on cardiorespiratory data and important regulators of macro- and microcirculation were studied in 30 patients undergoing Whipple pancreaticduodenectomy. The patients received randomized and blinded either 2 μg · kg^?1 · min^?1 of dopexamine (n=15) or placebo (n=15, control group). The infusion was started after induction of anaesthesia and continued until the morning of the first postoperative day. Endothelin-1 (ET-1), vasopressin, atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), and catecholamine plasma levels were measured from arterial blood samples. Measurements were carried out after induction of anaesthesia, 2 h after onset of surgery, at the end of surgery, 2 h after surgery, and on the morning of the first postoperative day. Results: Cardiac index (CI) increased significantly in the dopexamine group (from 2.61±0.41 to 4.57±0.78 1 · min^?1 · m^?2) and remained elevated until the morning of the first postoperative day. Oxygen delivery index (DO₂I) and oxygen consumption index (VO₂I) were also significantly increased in the dopexamine group (DO₂I: from 416±91 to 717±110 ml/m² · m²; VO₂I: from 98±25 to 157±22 ml/m² · m²), being significantly higher than in the control group. pHi remained stable only in the dopexamine patients, indicating adequate splanchnic perfusion. Vasopressive regulators of circulation increased significantly only in the untreated control patients (vasopressin: from 4.37±1.1 to 35.9±12.1 pg/ml; ET-1: from 2.88±0.91 to 6.91±1.20 pg/ml). Conclusion: Patients undergoing major abdominal surgery may profit from prophylactic perioperative administration of dopexamine hydrochloride in the form of improved haemodynamics and oxygenation as well as beneficial influence on important regulators of organ blood flow.     

A comparison of the inhibitory effects of four volatile anaesthetics on the metabolism of chlorzoxazone, a substrate for CYP2E1, in rabbits

Background: Halothane inhibits in vitro and in vivo activity of cytochrome P-450 (CYP) 2E1. There are several fluorinated volatile anaesthetics besides halothane, and most of them are defluorinated by CYP2E1. It is unclear whether other fluorinated anaesthetics inhibit the in vivo activity of CYP2E1.
Methods: We compared the inhibitory effects of therapeutic concentrations of four inhalational anaesthetics, halothane, enflurane, isoflurane, and sevoflurane, on chlorzoxazone metabolism in rabbits receiving artificial ventilation.
Results: All four inhalational anaesthetics decreased arterial blood pressure and increased plasma chlorzoxazone concentration. However, no significant differences in the plasma chlorzoxazone concentration were found between the four anaesthetics. The estimated chlorzoxazone clearance increased after beginning inhalation with all four agents, but no significant difference in clearance was noted between agents.
Conclusions: At therapeutic concentrations, the in vivo inhibitory effect on chlorzoxazone metabolism was similar for all four inhalational anaesthetics examined, even though their chemical characteristics and extent of hepatic metabolism differ considerably.     

Systemic analgesia adapted to the children's condition

A concept of balanced analgesia using nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), paracetamol (acetaminophen), opioids, and corticosteroids can also be used in patients with pre-existing illnesses. NSAIDs are the most effective treatment for acute pain of moderate intensity in children; however, these drugs should be avoided in patients at increased risk for serious side effects, e.g. patients with renal impairment, bleeding tendency, or extreme prematurity. NSAIDs can be given with minimal risks to the younger child with mild to moderate asthma, and, in these patients, the use of steroids can be encouraged; in addition to their antiemetic and analgesic action, a beneficial effect on asthma symptoms can be expected. In the non-intubated child with cerebral trauma, exaggerated sedation caused by opioids and increased bleeding tendency caused by NSAIDs must be avoided. In neonates and small infants, the oral administration of sucrose or glucose is helpful to minimize pain reaction during short uncomfortable interventions.