Class act: safety comparison of approved tyrosine kinase inhibitors for non-small-cell lung carcinoma

Introduction: The past decade has seen the development and widespread use of tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) targeting a mutated EGFR (mEGFR) for the treatment of metastatic NSCLC. We discuss the main properties of the TKIs currently recommended for the treatment of mEGFR NSCLC: gefitinib, erlotinib and afatinib.

Areas covered: The mechanism of action, pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics of these drugs, with emphasis on the historical context of their preclinical and clinical development, will be covered, including potential resistance mechanisms to these first-generation TKIs that has driven the trial design for second and third generations of EGFR inhibitors. Six Phase III clinical trials comparing these three TKIs with cisplatin-based chemotherapy upfront for mEGFR NSCLC provide the basis for the comparative safety and toxicity analysis between these agents. Class-related toxicity of these EGFR inhibitors, including life-threatening effects, will be discussed.

Expert opinion: Toxicity and safety analysis from the Phase III trials of these agents in mEGFR populations suggests that afatinib has more frequent and severe side effects. Given that an efficacy advantage has not yet been demonstrated for afatinib over erlotinib and gefitinib, the consistent class toxicity profile of these agents means that gefitinib and erlotinib are a safer first-line treatment recommendation.     

Afatinib for the first-line treatment of patients with metastatic EGFR-positive NSCLC: a look at the data

Introduction: Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) mutations are detected in about 10–15% of Caucasian and 30–40% of Asian patients with advanced or metastatic non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC). In patients harbouring EGFR mutations, the treatment with different available EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) showed to be more effective and safe than platinum-based chemotherapy regimens.

Areas covered: The current evidences about the role of afatinib for patients with EGFR-positive NSCLC are reviewed and discussed. We report a review based on a MEDLINE/PubMed, searched for randomized phase II or III trials evaluating afatinib in EGFR-positive NSCLC.

Expert commentary: Afatinib is the third EGFR TKI approved for the treatment of NSCLC harbouring EGFR mutations, showing high efficacy in this setting of patients.     

Gefitinib for non-small-cell lung cancer treatment

Introduction: Gefitinib is an EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitor (EGFR-TKI) that demonstrated efficacy in patients with advanced non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) across therapy lines. In the first-line setting, recent randomized Phase III trials comparing EGFR-TKIs versus platinum-based doublets demonstrated that in patients harboring an activating EGFR mutation, gefitinib is superior to chemotherapy in terms of response rate, progression-free survival, toxicity profile and quality of life, with a marginal positive effect on survival. In order to choose the best treatment, a molecular characterization is now mandatory, as part of baseline diagnostic procedures.

Areas covered: All published data on gefitinib in lung cancer were analyzed using PubMed. The aim of this review is to summarize activity and safety data from major clinical trials of gefitinib in patients with advanced NSCLC.

Expert opinion: EGFR-TKIs including gefitinib are the best option we can offer today in patients with EGFR mutation, regardless of treatment line. Administration of gefitinib to patients with advanced NSCLC is usually well-tolerated and it also appears to be feasible in special populations characterized by a significantly poorer risk:benefit ratio with standard chemotherapy, like elderly patients and patients with poor performance status.     

Dacomitinib for the first-line treatment of patients with EGFR-mutated metastatic non-small cell lung cancer

ABSTRACT

Introduction: Different EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) are currently approved for the first-line treatment of NSCLC patients with EGFR mutations. Dacomitinib is an orally administered, second-generation pan-HER inhibitor that has shown to improve PFS and OS compared to the first-generation TKI gefitinib and is the most recent inhibitor to be approved in this setting.

Areas covered: This article will review relevant literature regarding preclinical findings and clinical data from phase I-III trials of dacomitinib. We particularly discuss the mechanism of action of dacomitinib and its clinical efficacy and toxicity as a novel, first-line therapeutic option for EGFR-mutated NSCLC.

Expert commentary: The therapeutic landscape for EGFR-mutated NSCLC has been greatly expanded. In the first-line setting, we have currently first-, second- and third-generation EGFR TKIs available and some combination strategies, including EGFR TKIs with anti-angiogenic drugs or chemotherapy, have also shown to be effective. However, more data are needed to define the optimal therapeutic sequencing of all these targeted agents and combinations. In this view, molecular profiling of tumor tissues and liquid biopsies may provide novel insights on mechanisms of resistance to different drugs and guide treatment decisions.     

酪氨酸激酶抑制剂(吉非替尼、厄洛替尼、阿法替尼和奥希替尼)一线治疗表皮生长因子受体突变的晚期非小细胞肺癌的成本-效果分析

吉非替尼、厄洛替尼、阿法替尼和奥希替尼已被推荐为表皮生长因子受体突变的晚期非小细胞肺癌的一线治疗药物,但同时比较这四种酪氨酸激酶抑制剂在中国的经济性目前尚无研究.本研究旨在评价吉非替尼、厄洛替尼、阿法替尼和奥希替尼一线治疗表皮生长因子受体突变的晚期非小细胞肺癌的成本-效果性.通过构建马尔科夫模型,从中国医疗系统角度评价...     

Epidermal growth factor receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitors in previously treated advanced non-small-cell lung cancer with wild-type EGFR

Introduction: While epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) – tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) lead to longer progression-free survival (PFS) when compared with conventional chemotherapy in non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) harboring activating EGFR mutations, the role of EGFR-TKI remains unclear in EGFR-wild-type (WT) NSCLC.

Areas covered: This article reviews selected data from randomized trials regarding the use of TKIs in EGFR-WT NSCLC. Nine randomized phase III trials have compared EGFR-TKI with chemotherapy in NSCLC patients in a second or later line setting. Two of these trials, TAILOR and DELTA, which were designed to investigate treatment benefits according to EGFR genotype, demonstrated that docetaxel chemotherapy displayed significantly better in progression-free survival (PFS) when compared with the EGFR-TKI erlotinib. Biomarkers to predict clinical benefits of the drug against EGFR WT tumor, and the efficacy of combination regimens using erlotinib or single-use afatinib against tumors are also covered in this article.

Expert opinion: Considering the modest benefits of erlotinib for EGFR-WT tumors, future studies are warranted, including the exploration of useful biomarkers and new treatment strategies for EGFT-TKI use, as well as the development of more sensitive EGFR mutation tests.     

Reviewing the safety of erlotinib in non-small cell lung cancer

Importance of the field: Erlotinib, a potent inhibitor of EGFR activity, is approved as a monotherapy for the treatment of advanced NSCLC and in combination with gemcitabine for advanced pancreatic cancer. The oral administration and manageable toxicity of erlotinib, along with its similar efficacy to chemotherapy, make it an important option as either maintenance therapy or in second-/third-line for patients with NSCLC who have previously received first-line chemotherapy. It is also an emerging option in other treatment settings in NSCLC.

Areas covered in this review: This review summarizes safety data from major clinical trials of erlotinib in patients with advanced NSCLC, as well as post-marketing data obtained in the 5 years since this drug was first approved.

What the reader will gain: An understanding of the common toxicities expected with erlotinib in patients with advanced NSCLC.

Take home message: Erlotinib is a well-tolerated treatment option for patients with advanced NSCLC. The main adverse events of rash and diarrhea are typically mild or moderate in severity, and rarely lead to treatment withdrawal. When necessary, rash and diarrhea can be easily managed prophylactically, by active intervention or through dose reduction.     

EGFR TKI combination with immunotherapy in non-small cell lung cancer

Introduction: Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKI) has significantly improved clinical outcomes compared with chemotherapy in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients with sensitizing EGFR gene mutation.

Areas covered: Almost all patients treated with EGFR TKIs eventually develop acquired resistance. It has been reported that activation of the oncogenic EGFR pathway enhances susceptibility of the lung tumors to PD-1 blockade in mouse model, suggesting combination of PD1 blockade with EGFR TKIs may be a promising therapeutic strategy. Nivolumab combined with erlotinib was associated with 19% of grade 3 toxicities. The combination of osimertinib plus durvalumab in pretreated or chemo naïve NSCLC patients showed encouraging clinical activity, however, this combination was associated with high incidence of interstitial lung disease (38%), leading to termination of further enrollment. The combination of gefitinib plus durvalumab demonstrated encouraging activity but higher incidence of grade 3/4 liver enzyme elevation (40–70%). The treatment related Grade 3–4 adverse events were observed in 39% of patients when treated with atezolizumab plus erlotinib.

Expert opinion: Given the relatively high incidence of treatment-related toxicities associated with combination of EGFR TKI and immunotherapy, further development of this approach remains controversial. Until now, the combination of EGFR TKI and immunotherapy should be investigational.     

Epidermal growth factor receptor inhibitors in the treatment of non-small cell lung cancer

Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is the leading cause of cancer-related death in both men and women. Despite the introduction of the newer cytotoxic agents in NSCLC treatment during the last decade the survival rates of patients have reached a plateau. New strategies are clearly needed to improve treatment outcomes. Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) has a key role in cancer development and progression and has been recognised as a target of increasing importance in NSCLC. Gefitinib, erlotinib and cetuximab are EGFR-targeting agents that are being extensively evaluated in NSCLC. EGFR inhibitors demonstrate significant clinical activity in approximately 10-20% of pretreated NSCLC patients. Somatic mutations in the kinase domain of the receptor have been shown to be associated with enhanced sensitivity to EGFR inhibitors. However, four large Phase III randomised, placebo-controlled trials of gefitinib and erlotinib in combination with standard platinum-based first-line chemotherapy failed to show any survival benefit in patients receiving the study drugs. Possible reasons include patient selection, drug scheduling, trial design or other factors. Active research is ongoing to improve the efficacy of EGFR inhibitors as monotherapy or in combination with other treatment modalities.     

Epidermal growth factor receptor inhibitors in the treatment of non-small cell lung cancer

Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is the leading cause of cancer-related death in both men and women. Despite the introduction of the newer cytotoxic agents in NSCLC treatment during the last decade the survival rates of patients have reached a plateau. New strategies are clearly needed to improve treatment outcomes. Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) has a key role in cancer development and progression and has been recognised as a target of increasing importance in NSCLC. Gefitinib, erlotinib and cetuximab are EGFR-targeting agents that are being extensively evaluated in NSCLC. EGFR inhibitors demonstrate significant clinical activity in ~ 10 – 20% of pretreated NSCLC patients. Somatic mutations in the kinase domain of the receptor have been shown to be associated with enhanced sensitivity to EGFR inhibitors. However, four large Phase III randomised, placebo-controlled trials of gefitinib and erlotinib in combination with standard platinum-based first-line chemotherapy failed to show any survival benefit in patients receiving the study drugs. Possible reasons include patient selection, drug scheduling, trial design or other factors. Active research is ongoing to improve the efficacy of EGFR inhibitors as monotherapy or in combination with other treatment modalities.     

Optimal management of patients with non-small cell lung cancer and epidermal growth factor receptor mutations

In recent years, the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs), gefitinib and erlotinib, which have promising activity and a favourable toxicity profile, have been used in the management of advanced non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). The knowledge that EGFR-activating mutations confer sensitivity to EGFR TKIs has led to the design and analysis of phase II and III studies of gefitinib or erlotinib treatment in various clinical scenarios. We review the important NSCLC clinical trials of the efficacy of EGFR TKIs in the context of EGFR-activating mutations. In all phase II single-arm studies or phase III randomized comparative studies, EGFR TKIs as monotherapy were superior to combination chemotherapy in terms of response rate and progression-free survival in patients with activating EGFR mutations. EGFR TKIs have contributed to the superior overall survival time in NSCLC patients with EGFR mutations compared with those patients without EGFR mutations. The results of these studies have led to a paradigm shift in the treatment of patients with advanced NSCLC. NSCLC with EGFR mutations constitutes a new entity requiring different personalized treatment strategies.     

The safety of afatinib for the treatment of non-small cell lung cancer

ABSTRACT

Introduction: Lung cancer tumors present EGFR mutations associated with an increased response rate to tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs). Afatinib acts as an irreversible pan-ErbB-TKI.

Areas covered: This review summarizes the results of clinical trials in NSCLC regarding its safety and efficacy.

Expert opinion: Afatinib in 40 mg doses is highly effective in patients with NSCLC and EGFR mutations, improving progression-free survival and disease-related symptoms compared to chemotherapy. Additionally, afatinib has a better response rate and shows a small benefit in progression free survival compared to first-generation TKIs, and patients with exon 19 deletion could represent a subgroup with better prognosis and overall survival. Diarrhea, mucositis and rash are frequent adverse events induced by afatinib, these can impair quality of life and sometimes afatinib discontinuation is necessary. Management of adverse events, including early antidiarrheal treatment and prophylactic or early antibiotic management can reduce the gastrointestinal and cutaneous adverse events, respectively. Different risk factors, including malnourishment, sarcopenia, and low body surface might be associated with a higher toxicity risk, and these groups of patients could begin treatment with a low dose of afatinib followed by a close evaluation on tolerability and toxicity in order to slowly increase the dosage of afatinib.     

Is there a role for dacomitinib,a second-generation irreversible inhibitor of the epidermal-growth factor receptor tyrosine kinase,in advanced non-small cell lung cancer?

ABSTRACT

Introduction

Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is a highly lethal disease. During the past 20 years, the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) has been a relevant target for anticancer drug-design, and a large family of EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKI) were designed, which improved therapeutic outcomes compared to conventional chemotherapy in NSCLC patients with specific EGFR mutations. However, resistance to these inhibitors occurs; therefore, the debate on which inhibitor should be used first is still open. Dacomitinib was approved in 2018 for the first-line treatment of NSCLC with EGFR activating mutations.     

Pharmacokinetic drug evaluation of osimertinib for the treatment of non-small cell lung cancer

Introduction: First- and second-generation epidermal growth factor receptor-tyrosine kinase inhibitors (EGFR-TKIs), such as gefitinib, erlotinib, icotinib, and afatinib are the standard-of-care for first-line therapy of non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) harboring activating EGFR mutations. Unfortunately, after initial activity of an average 9–13 months, disease progression has been reported in the majority of patients. In about 50% of cases the progression is due to the onset of the T790M mutation in exon 20 of the EGFR gene. Third-generation EGFR-TKIs targeting this mutation were investigated, with osimertinib the only reaching clinical practice.

Areas covered: A structured search of bibliographic databases for peer-reviewed research literature and of main meetings using a focused review question addressing osimertinib, was undertaken.

Expert opinion: Osimertinib is the standard-of-care for EGFR-mutated patients progressing to first-line EGFR-TKIs due to the acquired EGFR T790M mutation. Results from the head-to-head first-line trial comparing osimertinib versus gefitinib or erlotinib in activating EGFR mutations might change the front-line approach. Osimertinib in combination regimens, such as immunotherapy, and in adjuvant setting are ongoing. Thus, the strategic approach for the management of EGFR-mutated NSCLC patients will change further in the next few years.     

吉非替尼单药一线治疗晚期非小细胞肺癌临床研究

目的评价吉非替尼单药一线治疗在未经化疗的Ⅳ期非小细胞肺癌(NSCLC)患者中的有效性和耐受性。方法23例经组织学或细胞学确诊的未经化疗的Ⅳ期NSCLC患者,予以吉非替尼单药250mg/d口服,直到疾病进展或因严重不良反应不能耐受治疗。2月后评价疗效与不良反应,并随访1年生存率。结果客观有效率为26%,疾病控制率为61%;不良反应轻微,主要是皮疹、乏力、腹泻和肝功能异常。无间质性肺疾病(ILD)发生。1年生存率为58%。结论研究证实了吉非替尼单药一线治疗晚期NSCLC有效并具有良好的耐受性。     

Successful treatment with erlotinib after gefitinib-induced interstitial lung disease: a case report and literature review

Gefitinib and erlotinib, epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs), are widely used anticancer drugs for patients with non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), especially for those with EGFR-activating mutations. Both agents are considered to be less toxic compared with cytotoxic drugs; however, serious adverse events including interstitial lung disease (ILD) which can be fatal occur rarely. After such an event, physicians avoid to use another TKI. In such cases, patients and physicians are forced to make difficult decisions or reluctantly choose TKI when there is no other option. Here we report a case of a patient with lung adenocarcinoma who showed good recovery from gefitinib-induced ILD by high-dose corticosteroid therapy. The patient was then administrated erlotinib as second-line chemotherapy and showed tumor shrinkage without ILD after 6 months of treatment. We discuss the common features of the cases in the previous documentations and ours which were successfully retreated with erlotinib after gefitinib-induced ILD had previously developed.     

晚期非小细胞肺癌一线治疗新药阿法替尼

阿法替尼是一种口服给药的酪氨酸激酶ErbB家族不可逆抑制药。两项随机、开放标签、多中心Ⅲ期临床试验结果表明,与培美曲塞+顺铂(LUX-Lung 3)或吉西他滨+顺铂(LUX-Lung 6)化疗相比,阿法替尼可显著延长EGFR突变的晚期非小细胞肺癌患者的无进展生存期,患者报告的咳嗽和呼吸困难症状以及健康相关生活质量也优于化疗组。阿法替尼于2013年7月获得美国FDA批准上市,一线治疗伴EGFR外显子19缺失或外显子21替代突变的晚期非小细胞肺癌。本文对阿法替尼的作用机制、药动学特性、临床研究进展以及安全性等作一综述。     

阿法替尼治疗晚期非小细胞肺癌的疗效和安全性观察

目的：观察第二代表皮生长因子受体酪氨酸激酶抑制剂（EGFR －TKIs）阿法替尼治疗晚期非小细胞肺癌（NSCLC）的疗效和安全性。方法纳入37例经病理学或细胞学确诊的Ⅳ期非小细胞肺癌（NSCLC）患者。一线表皮生长因子受体（EGFR）突变患者10例,给予阿法替尼每日40 mg 口服;二线及以上患者27例,其中2例二线鳞癌患者给予阿法替尼每日40 mg 口服,其余二线以上患者给予每日50 mg 口服,直至疾病进展,观察近期疗效、无进展生存期（PFS）及不良反应。结果全组37例患者,完全缓解（CR）0例,部分缓解（PR）14例（37．8％）,疾病稳定（SD）19例（51．4％）,疾病进展（PD）4例（10．8％）,客观有效率（ORR）37．8％,疾病控制率（DCR）89．2％,PFS 为6．9个月（95％CI 3．8～10．0）。亚组分析显示,一线 EGFR 突变患者ORR 100％,PFS 12．1个月,二线及以上 EGFR 突变未知患者 ORR 14．8％,PFS 5．3个月,两组间差异有显著性意义（P ＜0．01）。最常见的不良反应为腹泻（100．0％）,皮疹（83．8％）。结论阿法替尼用于一线治疗具有 EGFR 基因突变的晚期NSCLC 患者疗效确切,患者耐受性较好。     

奥希替尼用于EGFR+晚期非小细胞肺癌患者一线治疗的药物经济学评价

目的评估奥希替尼在2020年国家谈判价格下用于有表皮生长因子受体(epidermal growth factor receptor,EGFR)阳性突变的局部晚期或转移性非小细胞肺癌(non-small cell lung cancer,NSCLC)患者一线治疗的成本效用。方法基于卫生服务支付方角度,构建包含无进展生存期(progression-free survival,PFS)和疾病进展期(progressive disease,PD)的分区生存模型,以质量调整生命年(quality-adjusted life years,QALYs)作为结果指标计算增量成本效用比(incremental cost-utility,ICER)。疗效数据来自多中心、随机、对照、双盲的FLAURA试验,成本数据来自招采挂网数据和专家咨询,不同健康状态的健康效用值源于文献。对关键参数进行敏感度分析。结果与厄洛替尼、吉非替尼、阿法替尼和埃克替尼相比,奥希替尼在国家谈判价格下终身成本更高,获得的QALYs也更高。与已过专利期的厄洛替尼和吉非替尼相比,奥希替尼ICER值分别为122 695元和117 359元,约为我国人均GDP的1.7倍;与同样仍在专利期的阿法替尼和埃克替尼相比,奥希替尼ICER值分别为16 502元和43 337元,远低于我国人均GDP。单因素敏感度分析显示,奥希替尼价格是对ICER值影响最大的因素。概率敏感度分析显示,当支付意愿为我国三倍人均GDP时,奥希替尼具有成本效果的概率为100%。结论与厄洛替尼、吉非替尼、阿法替尼和埃克替尼相比,奥希替尼用于EGFR+的局部晚期或转移性NSCLC患者一线治疗更具成本效用。     

阿法替尼和吉非替尼一线治疗EGFR突变阳性非小细胞肺癌的成本效用分析

目的 从中国医疗保健支付者的角度,评价阿法替尼与吉非替尼在表皮生长因子受体（epidermal growth factor receptor,EGFR）突变阳性非小细胞肺癌一线治疗中的成本效用。方法 基于一项高质量、多中心的二期随机临床试验（LUNG7）,依据疾病发展进程建立三状态Markov模型（无进展生存状态、疾病进展状态、死亡状态）,模型各状态转移概率与不良反应发生率通过临床试验数据提取并计算,效用值取自研究文献中的中国人群效用值,直接医疗成本取自本地收费或相关文献。对总人群Markov模型进行为期10年的成本效用评估,并对模型分析结果的稳定性进行确定敏感性和概率敏感性分析。结果 在基础分析中,10年间阿法替尼组相对于吉非替尼组需多花费$16 499.77,但同时可多获得0.29个质量调整生命年（quality-adjusted life years,QALYs）,其增量成本效果比（incremental cost-effectiveness ratio,ICER）为$57 428.17/QALY。此时ICER值高于中国支付意愿阈值（willingness to pay,WTP）$26 331/QALY,表明阿法替尼目前相对于吉非替尼不具经济优势。一维敏感性分析结果显示疾病进展阶段的效用值、吉非替尼和阿法替尼的价格以及无进展生存期效用值对结果的稳定性影响较大,但除吉非替尼价格外,其他变量均不能使ICER值降至WTP之下,表明模型结果稳定。结论 对于中国EFGR突变阳性非小细胞肺癌患者,阿法替尼在一线治疗中相对于吉非替尼当前没有表现出经济性。