A longitudinal study of the efficacy of a comprehensive pain rehabilitation program with opioid withdrawal: comparison of treatment outcomes based on opioid use status at admission

Use of opioids for chronic non-cancer pain is controversial and the efficacy of comprehensive pain rehabilitation programs (CPRPs) that incorporate opioid withdrawal requires further investigation. We test the hypothesis that patients with chronic pain and longstanding opioid use who undergo opioid withdrawal in the course of rehabilitative treatment will experience significant and sustained improvement in pain and functioning similar to patients who were not taking opioids. A longitudinal design study compared 373 consecutive patients admitted to the Mayo Clinic Pain Rehabilitation Center at admission, discharge and six-month posttreatment by opioid status at admission. Measures of pain severity, depression, psychosocial functioning, health status, and pain catastrophizing were used to assess between- and within-group differences. Treatment involved a 3-week interdisciplinary pain rehabilitation program focused on functional restoration. Over one-half of patients (57.1%) were taking opioids daily at admission. The majority of patients (91%) completed rehabilitation and 70% of patients who completed the program returned questionnaires six months posttreatment. On admission, patients taking low- and high-dose opioids reported significantly greater pain severity (P=.001) and depression (P=.001) than the non-opioid group. Significant improvement was found on all outcome variables following treatment (P<.001) and six-month posttreatment (P<.001) regardless of opioid status at admission. There were no differences between the opioid and non-opioid groups upon discharge from the program or at six months following treatment. Conclusion: Patients with longstanding CPRP on chronic opioid therapy, who choose to participate in interdisciplinary rehabilitation that incorporates opioid withdrawal, can experience significant and sustained improvement in pain severity and functioning.     

Impact of opioid use on outcomes of functional restoration

OBJECTIVES: To examine the effect of opioid use on psychological function, physical functioning, and return-to-work outcomes of a multidisciplinary rehabilitation program (MRP) for chronic pain. METHODS: The participants were 127 patients with on-the-job injuries who had completed an MRP between 2001 and 2003. Opioid use was controlled by the patients' treating physicians (who were not affiliated with the MRP) and was assessed via patient self-report at the time of admission to the program and discharge. Other measures included pretreatment and posttreatment assessments of depression, pain severity, perceived disability, and physical ability (floor-to-waist lifting capacity). Return-to-work outcomes were obtained via follow-up phone calls approximately 6 months posttreatment. RESULTS: Significant improvements from pretreatment to posttreatment were evidenced on all psychological and physical measures for both opioid users and nonusers. Further, there were no significant posttreatment differences between opioid and nonopioid users on psychological, physical, or return-to-work outcomes. DISCUSSION: The role of opioids in the treatment of chronic pain continues to be controversial. Despite a lack of definitive data on their effectiveness, opioids continue to be prescribed, and thus patients using opioids continue to present for multidisciplinary rehabilitation. Although further exploration is warranted, results of the current study suggest that opioid use during rehabilitation does not necessarily preclude treatment success.     

Patterns of opioid use for chronic noncancer pain in the Veterans Health Administration from 2009 to 2011

Although opioids are frequently prescribed for chronic noncancer pain (CNCP) among Veterans Health Administration (VHA) patients, little has been reported on national opioid prescribing patterns in the VHA. Our objective was to better characterize the dosing and duration of opioid therapy for CNCP in the VHA. We analyzed national VHA administrative and pharmacy data for fiscal years 2009 to 2011. For individuals with CNCP diagnoses and any opioid use in the fiscal year, we calculated the distribution of individual mean daily opioid dose, individual total days covered with opioids in a year, and individual total opioid dose in a year. We also investigated the factors associated with being in the top 5% of individuals for total opioid dose in a year, which we term receipt of high-volume opioids. About half of the patients with CNCP received opioids in a given fiscal year. The median daily dose was 21 mg morphine equivalents. Approximately 4.5% had a mean daily dose higher than 120 mg morphine equivalents. The median days covered in a year was 115 to 120 days in these years for those receiving opioids. Fifty-seven percent had at least 90 days covered with opioids per year. Major depression and posttraumatic stress disorder were positively associated with receiving high-volume opioids, but nonopioid substance use disorders were not. Among VHA patients with CNCP, chronic opioid therapy occurs frequently, but for most patients, the average daily dose is modest. Doses and duration of therapy were unchanged from 2009 to 2011.     

Clinical outcomes of cardiac arrest patients according to opioid use history

PurposeOpioid analgesics are potent respiratory depressants. The purpose of this study was to describe the effects of opioids administered within 24 hours before cardiac arrest on clinical outcomes.Materials and methodsWe retrospectively collected the cardiac arrest data of noncancer patients who were admitted to the general ward of Asan Medical Center from January 2008 to August 2012. We investigated the proportion of these patients who received opioids within 24 hours of a cardiac arrest event, as well as the cardiac arrest characteristics, survival rates, and opioid administration patterns.ResultsOf the 193 patients identified, 58 (30%) had been administered opioids within the previous 24 hours (the opioid group), whereas the remaining 135 (70%) had not been administered opioids (the nonopioid group). The survival rate did not differ significantly between these 2 groups. In the opioid group, as-needed opioid administration was associated with a lower 24-hour survival rate than regular opioid administration (9 [33.3%] of 27 patients vs 20 [64.5%] of 31 patients; P = .030). In multivariate logistic regression analysis, as-needed opioid administration was negatively associated with 24-hour survival.ConclusionsOpioid administration within 24 hours before cardiac arrest per se was not associated with adverse outcomes. However, administration of opioid analgesics on an as-needed basis was associated with poorer survival outcomes than regular dosing. Greater attention should be paid to patients who receive as-needed opioid administration in the general ward.     

Research Gaps on Use of Opioids for Chronic Noncancer Pain: Findings From a Review of the Evidence for an American Pain Society and American Academy of Pain Medicine Clinical Practice Guideline

Chronic noncancer pain is common and use of opioids is increasing. Previously published guidelines on use of opioids for chronic noncancer pain have been based primarily on expert consensus due to lack of strong evidence. We conducted searches on Ovid MEDLINE and the Cochrane databases through July 2008 to identify studies that addressed one or more of 37 Key Questions that a multidisciplinary expert panel identified as important to be answered to generate evidence-based recommendations on the use of opioids for chronic noncancer pain. A total of 14 systematic reviews, 38 randomized trials not included in a previously published systematic review, and 13 other studies met inclusion criteria. Almost all of the randomized trials of opioids for chronic noncancer pain were short-term efficacy studies. Critical research gaps on use of opioids for chronic noncancer pain include: lack of effectiveness studies on long-term benefits and harms of opioids (including drug abuse, addiction, and diversion); insufficient evidence to draw strong conclusions about optimal approaches to risk stratification, monitoring, or initiation and titration of opioid therapy; and lack of evidence on the utility of informed consent and opioid management plans, the utility of opioid rotation, the benefits and harms specific to methadone or higher doses of opioids, and treatment of patients with chronic noncancer pain at higher risk for drug abuse or misuse.PerspectiveCurrently, clinical decisions regarding the use of opioids for chronic noncancer pain need to be made based on weak evidence. Research funding priorities need to be set to address these critical research needs if the care of patients with chronic noncancer pain is to improve.     

Eingeschränkte Wirksamkeit von Opioiden bei chronischen muskuloskelettalen Schmerzen

After excluding malignant disease in 21 patients with unremitting strong pain of the musculoskeletal system despite long-term opioid medication, the opioids were withdrawn to search for reasons of the limited effectiveness of the opioids.The opioid withdrawal was integrated in multimodal pain coping therapy. Besides the somatic diagnoses, pain-relevant psychosomatic diagnoses were evaluated with the structured clinical interview for DSM-IV (SCID). At the time of admission and discharge pain medication, physical functions, mood, and pain intensity were recorded.In the SCID interview, all patients were diagnosed with a relevant comorbid psychiatric condition (pain disorder, anxiety, depression). Despite reduction of the opioid medication, there was no increase of pain, but an improvement of the physical functions.In patients with chronic pain of the musculoskeletal system and limited effectiveness of opioid medication, psychosomatic comorbidities should be evaluated. Instead of continued and increased opioid medication, pain coping strategies and opioid withdrawal should be tested.     

Chronic pain rehabilitation in chronic headache disorders

This article reviews the treatment goals and efficacy of comprehensive pain rehabilitation programs for the treatment of chronic headache. Substantial data demonstrate improved outcomes from rehabilitative treatment for chronic noncancer pain. We present a discussion of the most relevant recent publications on pain rehabilitation in chronic headache disorders. This article describes pain rehabilitation, reviews outcome data for chronic pain patients treated in this setting, and describes the unique applicability of this treatment approach for patients with chronic headache. Particular attention is directed to the rationale for and the results of the withdrawal, in a pain rehabilitation setting, of opioids and simple analgesics, ergots, and triptans that contribute to medication overuse headaches. Additionally, a case example is reviewed that illustrates the structure and function of a pain rehabilitation program in the treatment of a patient with intractable headache.     

Continuous opioid therapy (COT) is rarely advisable for refractory chronic daily headache: limited efficacy, risks, and proposed guidelines

Intractable pain, headache or otherwise, is a devastating and life-controlling experience. The need to effectively and aggressively control pain is a fundamental tenet of clinical care. In the past several years, increasing advocacy for continuous opioid therapy has become an important, if not controversial, theme in the development of treatment guidelines and teaching programs. Ironically, the increasing willingness of physicians to prescribe scheduled opioids for their headache and pain patients has occurred in the absence of compelling data demonstrating efficacy or long-term safety. To the contrary, two meta-analyses on chronic noncancer pain (CNCP) and one long-term uncontrolled study on headache patients demonstrate a relatively small number of patients benefiting from the treatment. Recent neuroscience data on the effects of opioids on the brain raise serious concern for long-term safety and also provide the basis for the mechanism by which chronic opioid use might induce progression of headache frequency and severity. Significant adverse effects, including influence on sexual hormonal balances, physical and psychological dependence, the development of opioid-induced hyperalgesia, and cardiac arrhythmia and sudden death that can be seen with standard dosages of methadone, make a strong argument against widespread use of continuous opioid therapy (COT) in otherwise healthy young and middle-aged headache patients.
We believe that COT should be used in rare circumstances for chronic headache patients, and propose initial guidelines for selecting patients and monitoring treatment. The physician should be well versed in the details of opioid prescribing, administration, and monitoring, and should be prepared to discontinue opioids when clinical justification, patient behavior, or failure to achieve therapeutic goals make discontinuance necessary.     

The DIRE score: predicting outcomes of opioid prescribing for chronic pain.

The objective of this retrospective study was to test the validity and reliability of a scoring tool (the DIRE Score), for use by clinicians, that predicts which chronic noncancer pain patients will have effective analgesia and be compliant with long-term opioid maintenance treatment. DIRE scores were assigned to 61 cases from the pain center's databases. These cases were abstracted into vignettes that were reviewed and scored by 6 physicians. Repeat scoring was carried out on a subset of 30 vignettes after 2 weeks. The main outcome measures were: global impression of compliance and efficacy as indicated in the medical record and by interview with the patient's treating clinician; and final disposition, ie, whether or not opioids were continued or discontinued at the time of last clinical documentation. Internal consistency of the factors making up the DIRE Score was high (Cronbach's alpha = .80). Sensitivity and specificity of the DIRE Score for predicting patient compliance were 94% and 87%, respectively. For efficacy, sensitivity and specificity were 81% and 76%. For disposition, the sensitivity and specificity were 86% and 73%. Intraclass correlation was 0.94 for interrater reliability and 0.95 for intrarater reliability. PERSPECTIVE: Public controversy about the use of long-term opioids for chronic pain fuels physician ambivalence about the prescribing process. In this initial retrospective study, validity and reliability of the DIRE Score are demonstrated. The score correlated well with measures of patient compliance and efficacy of long-term opioid therapy.     

Nurse case management program of chronic pain patients treated with methadone.

Methadone treatment in chronic pain patients is still limited owing to misconceptions about addiction, safety, and its unique pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties. Nevertheless, patients with chronic noncancer pain are frequently treated with methadone at our Pain Centre either as the first opioid of choice, for specific pain conditions, or as a second-line opioid in patients developing tolerance or intractable side effects with other opioids. The aim of this study was to examine whether a nurse case management program of chronic pain patients treated with methadone is feasible and safe in trying to improve patients' care in an ambulatory setting. This program consisted of three phases: initial primary education session, telephone follow-up during methadone titration, and a subsequent maintenance period. The nurse case manager functioned autonomously and when required reported to and consulted the physician. The study included 75 subjects and was done over a nine-month period by completing follow-up questionnaires for every call. Of a total of 194 recorded calls, 41% were unscheduled. Forty-four percent of phone calls resulted in a methadone increase and 11% led to a decrease or cessation of methadone. No patients developed serious morbidity or mortality. Fifty-seven percent of patients were either satisfied or very satisfied with their treatment. A nurse-led case management program of methadone in chronic pain patients can improve patient care in an ambulatory setting.