Factors influencing outcome of inpatient pediatric resuscitation

The aims of this study were: 1) To define the rate of long-term survivors (LTS) after cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) in children; 2) To identify the predictors of survival in pediatric resuscitation; and 3) To assess the outcome six months after discharge. Three groups of patients were identified based on outcome: 1. Long-term survivors (LTS), who were discharged, 2. Short-term survivors (STS), who survived longer than 24 hours after CPR but not until discharge, and 3. Nonsurvivors (NS), who died within 24 hours after their arrest. Of the 67 patients, 10 (14.9%) children were STS, while 46 (68.7%) were NS. Only eleven (16.4%) were LTS who were eventually discharged from the hospital and six were alive six months after discharge. Four patients had neurological sequelae. Less than 5 minutes' duration of CPR and reactive pupils at the onset of cardiopulmonary arrest (CPA) were the most important factors that predicted long term survival. We suggest that a positive pupillary light reflex at the onset of CPA and the duration of CPR should be considered as important predictors of survival in children with CPA.     

住院患儿发生心跳呼吸骤停复苏后存活率的预测因素分析

目的 探讨发生心跳呼吸骤停(CRA)住院儿童复苏后存活率的预测因素.方法 回顾性分析PICU发生CRA患儿的临床及心肺复苏(CPR)、复苏后资料,并进行单因素分析以及多因素非条件Logistic回归分析,探讨近期和远期存活率的预测因素.结果 2006年1月至2008年12月烟台毓璜顶医院PICU发生CRA并接受CPR的87例患儿中,43例恢复自主循环,复苏成功率为48.3%,24 h存活31例(35.6%);存活出院19例(21.8%).单因素分析结果显示:原发病、合并症以及发生骤停类型、气管插管、有效复苏时问、应用肾上腺素的剂量、复苏后24 h内体温、复苏后6 h血糖值、复苏后合并症均影响复苏后24 h存活率和出院存活率;Logistic回归分析示原发病、复苏时间为24 h存活率的预测因素;原发病、复苏时间、复苏后24 h体温为出院存活率的预测因素.结论 住院患儿发生CRA后近期、远期存活率均低,原发病及合并症、CPR质量以及复苏后管理均影响存活率,其中原发病、复苏时间为近期存活率预测因素,原发病、复苏时间、复苏后24 h体温为远期存活率的预测因素.     

Results of cardiopulmonary resuscitation in children

We retrospectively evaluated the outcome from cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) in 149 children of all age groups. Only 7 children experienced ventricular fibrillation. 47 children (31.5%) died immediately. Further 47 children died within 24 hours of their arrest, 24 (16.1%) survived longer than 24 hours after CPR but not until discharge. Only 31 children (20.8%) survived to discharge, 5 with severe neurologic sequelae, attributable to the arrest or resuscitation efforts. Cardiopulmonary arrests in the Pediatric Intensive Care Unit carried the worst prognosis. Better results were obtained out-of-hospital, in the OR or on the pediatric floor. Long-term survival rate did not correlate with age, or type of administered catecholamine. None of the children receiving calcium survived. This large study confirms the poor outcome of CPR in children.     

儿童院内心肺复苏结局及分析

目的 研究医院内心肺复苏（cardiopulmonary resuscitation,CPR）的发生及结局,并分析需要CPR患儿的预后,以提高CPR的成功率.方法 应用Utstein模式登记表对2008年10月至2011年10月我院需要CPR且年龄＞28 d的患儿进行前瞻性研究,以自主循环恢复（returning of sponta-neous circulation,ROSC）＞ 24 h为近期预后（复苏成功）的评价标准,对于出院患儿,在出院后6个月应用小儿脑功能类别量表进行脑功能评价.结果 需要CPR患儿共36例,其中ROSC＞ 24 h共15例,占需要CPR患儿的41.7％,存活至出院共7例,占需要CPR患儿的19.4％.单因素分析ROSC＞ 24 h组患儿在起始心脏节律、是否需要除颤及合并基础疾病方面与ROSC＜ 24 h组差异有统计学意义（P＜0.05）,ROSC ＞24h组起始心脏节律以窦性心动过缓为主,在CPR中如需要进行除颤则预后欠佳,基础疾病为心脏病患儿预后不佳;对出院患儿随访除1例失访外,4例患儿脑功能评分在2级以下,4级及5级各1例.结论 我院院内CPR成功率与发达国家报道类似,起始节律、是否需要除颤及合并基础疾病影响近期预后,CPR患儿能够存活则神经系统预后相对较好.     

Survival outcomes after extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation instituted during active chest compressions following refractory in-hospital pediatric cardiac arrest.

OBJECTIVE: To report survival outcomes and to identify factors associated with survival following extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation for in-hospital pediatric cardiac arrest. DESIGN: Retrospective chart review, consecutive case series. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Survival to hospital discharge. RESULTS: During a 7-yr study period, there were 66 cardiac arrest events in 64 patients in which a child was cannulated for extracorporeal membrane oxygenation during active cardiopulmonary resuscitation with chest compressions. A total of 33 of 66 events (50%) resulted in the child being decannulated and surviving at least 24 hrs; 21 of 64 (33%) children undergoing extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation survived to hospital discharge. A total of 19 of 43 children with isolated heart disease compared with two of 21 children with other medical conditions survived to hospital discharge (p <.01). Pediatric Cerebral Performance Category and Pediatric Overall Performance Category were determined for survivors >2 months old. Five of ten extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation survivors >2 months old had no change in Pediatric Cerebral Performance Category or Pediatric Overall Performance Category compared with admission. Three of six extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation patients who survived after receiving >60 mins of chest compressions before extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation had grossly intact neurologic function. During a 2-yr period in the same hospital, no patient who received >30 mins of cardiopulmonary resuscitation without extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation survived. In this case series, age, weight, or duration of chest compressions before extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation did not correlate with survival. CONCLUSIONS: Extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation can be used to successfully resuscitate selected children following refractory in-hospital cardiac arrest, and can be implemented during active cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Intact neurologic survival can sometimes be achieved, even when the duration of in-hospital cardiopulmonary resuscitation is prolonged. In this series, children with isolated heart disease were more likely to survive following extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation than were children with other medical conditions.     

Current and future therapies of pediatric cardiopulmonary arrest

Objective  To review contemporary guidelines and therapies for pediatric cardiac arrest and discuss potential novel therapies. Methods  Key articles and guidelines in the field were reviewed along with recent publications in the fields of neurointensive care and neuroscience germane to cerebral resuscitation. Results  A total of 45 articles were reviewed. The majority of arrests in the pediatric population are asphyxial in origin-which differs importantly from the adult population. The International Consensus on CPR guidelines are discussed, including good quality CPR, chest compressions without interruptions, resuscitation with 100% oxygen and subsequent titration of oxygen to normal oxygen saturations, correct dose of epinephrine, and use of hypothermia in the first 12–24 hours. Novel therapies that showed success in animal studies, such as hypertensive reperfusion, thrombolytics, hemodilution and extracorporeal CPR are also discussed. Conclusion  With only 30% return of spontaneous circulation, 12% survival to hospital discharge and 4% intact neurologic survival, pediatric cardiac arrest remains an area of intense research for therapies to improve its outcomes. In addition to the rapid implementation of basic and advanced life support interventions, new therapies that may have value include mild hypothermia, extracorporeal support, promotion of cerebral blood flow and other more novel therapies targeting oxidative stress, excitotoxicity, neuronal death, and rehabilitation.     

Outcome of cardiopulmonary resuscitation in children

A study was undertaken in order to identify factors correlated with the outcome of pediatric cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR). A total of 35 children who experienced a total of 41 cardiopulmonary arrests were included. Sixteen of 41 patients (39%) could not be resuscitated; 16/41 (39%) were resuscitated temporarily but did not survive to discharge; 9/41 (22%) survived to discharge. Patients arresting outside the hospital who received early basic CPR at the scene were significantly more likely to be resuscitated, at least temporarily, than those who did not (8/8 vs 5/11; P = 0.02). A statistically significant difference in outcome was also demonstrated between patients with an initial arterial blood pH greater than 7.0 and those with an initial arterial blood pH less than 7.0 (P less than 0.05). We conclude that an initial arterial blood pH less than 7.0 predicts a poor outcome from cardiopulmonary arrest in children. Access to early basic CPR may improve the initial pH and the ability of the patient to be resuscitated.     

影响儿童院内心肺复苏预后的因素分析

目的：探讨儿童院内心肺复苏(cardiopulmonary resuscitation,CPR)预后的影响因素。方法通过回顾性观察研究,对2012年1月至2014年10月我院发生的281例心肺复苏病例进行单因素分析,以自主循环恢复﹥20 min 作为近期复苏成功标准,分析心肺复苏预后的影响因素。结果纳入的281例患儿中,男∶女为1.34∶1,年龄1～191个月,其中自主循环恢复﹥20 min 共129例(45.9%),出院存活20例(8.8%)。性别、年龄、体重、呼吸心跳骤停(cardiopulmonary arrest,CPA)发生时间、CPA 初始心电图、pH 值、乳酸水平对心肺复苏预后无明显影响。基础疾病、CPA 发生地点、CPR 组织人员、通气方式、CPR 总时间、初期复苏时使用肾上腺素的次数、使用碳酸氢钠及血糖情况对复苏成功率有影响。结论目前 CPR 成功率及出院存活率仍较低。呼吸系统疾病成功率相对较高。CPR 时间﹥20 min、需要使用碳酸氢钠以及初期复苏中使用肾上腺素大于3次是影响 CPR 成功的不利因素。     

Cardiac arrest in children. Causes and future after cardiopulmonary resuscitation

A 24 months retrospective study was carried out to investigate 133 patients with an unexpected cardiorespiratory arrest (CRA). Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) was undertaken in all cases. 96 patients suffered CRA outside of hospital, 11 patients in the wards of the hospital, and 26 in the pediatric intensive care unit (PICU). Sixty children (44%) responded to initial resuscitation and 20 patients (15%) survived after discharge, 12 (9%) of them with a good neurologic outcome. The best results were obtained in patients with an CRA in the PICU. The results of this study suggest that survival among resuscitated children is not better than that among adults, but can be improved with early recognition and monitoring of children at risk.     

Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for refractory septic shock in children: one institution's experience.

OBJECTIVE: To report our institutional experience of venoarterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) in children with septic shock and circulatory collapse. DESIGN: Retrospective case series. SETTING: Intensive care unit of a tertiary pediatric referral center. PATIENTS: Forty-five children with refractory septic shock who received venoarterial ECMO for hemodynamic support. INTERVENTIONS: Venoarterial ECMO. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: We measured mean arterial pressure and inotropes before cannulation, ventilator settings, oxygenation, site and cause of infection, time on ECMO, complications of ECMO relating to the circuit or anticoagulation, survival to hospital discharge, and functional outcome assessment. Between July 1988 and October 2006, 441 children at our institution received extracorporeal life support for a variety of indications. Forty-five (10%) with septic shock received venoarterial ECMO specifically for hemodynamic support. Eighteen (40%) of these had suffered cardiac arrest and were receiving chest compressions immediately before cannulation. The median time spent on ECMO was 84 hrs (range, 32-135). There were mechanical problems with the ECMO circuit requiring intervention in 17 (38%) patients, such as oxygenator or pump head failure, clots in the circuit, or cannulae malposition. This caused no long-term harm in any but one of the patients, who died during a circuit change. Eleven patients (24%) had clinically apparent episodes of bleeding that required surgical intervention or blood transfusion. Twenty-one (47%) patients survived to hospital discharge. Atrioaortic cannulation through a sternotomy incision was associated with an improvement in survival to hospital discharge (73% of those with central cannulation survived vs. 44% without, p = .05). No survivors had severe disability at long-term follow-up. CONCLUSIONS: Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation can be safely used to resuscitate and support children with sepsis and refractory shock. Sepsis and multiorgan failure should not be considered a contraindication to ECMO. This study adds support to existing guidelines.     

Favourable neurological outcomes following delivery room cardiopulmonary resuscitation of infants < or = 750 g at birth

OBJECTIVE: To study short- and long-term outcomes of infants < or = 750 g birthweight who received cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) in the delivery room. METHODOLOGY: A retrospective analysis of all inborn live births < or = 750 g birthweight from 1990 to 1996. Cardiopulmonary resuscitation was defined as positive pressure ventilation via an endotracheal tube and chest compressions. Univeriate analysis were conducted comparing patients according to the use of CPR or positive pressure ventilation alone. RESULTS: Cardiopulmonary resuscitation was administered to 16 infants: four received chest compressions only and 12 also received adrenaline. Cardiopulmonary resuscitation recipients had significantly lower Apgar scores at both 1 and 5 min, and had delayed onset of spontaneous respiration (P < 0.01). Seven patients died, and eight of nine survivors were free of major neurodevelopmental abnormalities at follow up. All CPR recipients with a 5 min Apgar score of < or = 5 and delayed onset of spontaneous respiration beyond 5 min had poor outcomes. CONCLUSION: Contrary to the majority of published evidence, delivery room CPR in our extremely small infants was not associated with a high risk of severe neurodevelopmental disability.     

儿科院外心跳停止的流行病学特点与预后

目的 总结儿科院外心跳停止(OHCA)病例的流行病学特点与预后.方法 回顾性研究2001年1月至2009年12月我院急诊创伤中心(EDTC)收治的OHCA患儿的临床资料,分析与预后相关的因素[年龄、性别、转运工具、有无目击者、是否现场给予心肺复苏(CPR)、OHCA发生地点、OHCA可能原因及治疗等].结果 9年中共收治221例OHCA患儿,男女之比为1.15:1,经急诊抢救恢复自主循环(ROSC)77例(34.84%),出院时存活21例(9.50%).OHCA发生时有目击者、现场给予CPR、初始复苏时使用.肾上腺素使用次数、OHCA发生场所、救护车转运是急诊复苏成功的良好预测指标.初始复苏时肾上腺素使用次数、目击者现场CPR及OHCA发生地点是OHCA患儿最终存活的独立预测因子.意外伤害性疾病(69/221,31.22%)与复杂先天性心脏病(46/221,20.82%)是儿科OHCA主要原因.小于1岁年龄组是儿科OHCA的最好发年龄段(145/221,65.61%).结论 儿科OHCA患者存活率低,预后差,加强意外伤害预防、早期目击者CPR,能减少DHCA的发生率及改善预后.     

Improving Outcomes from Out-of-Hospital Cardiac Arrest in Young Children and Adolescents

Out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA) is an unusual but devastating occurrence in a young person. Years of life-lost are substantial and long-term health care costs of survivors can be high. However, there have been noteworthy improvements in cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) standards, out-of hospital care, and postcardiac arrest therapies that have resulted in a several-fold improvement in resuscitation outcomes. Recent interest and research in resuscitation of children has the promise of generating improvements in the outcomes of these patients. Integrated and coordinated care in the out-of-hospital and hospital settings are required. This article will review the epidemiology of OHCA, the 2010 CPR guidelines, and developments in public access defibrillation for children.     

儿科院外心跳停止的流行病学特点与预后

目的 总结儿科院外心跳停止(OHCA)病例的流行病学特点与预后.方法 回顾性研究2001年1月至2009年12月我院急诊创伤中心(EDTC)收治的OHCA患儿的临床资料,分析与预后相关的因素[年龄、性别、转运工具、有无目击者、是否现场给予心肺复苏(CPR)、OHCA发生地点、OHCA可能原因及治疗等].结果 9年中共收治221例OHCA患儿,男女之比为1.15:1,经急诊抢救恢复自主循环(ROSC)77例(34.84%),出院时存活21例(9.50%).OHCA发生时有目击者、现场给予CPR、初始复苏时使用.肾上腺素使用次数、OHCA发生场所、救护车转运是急诊复苏成功的良好预测指标.初始复苏时肾上腺素使用次数、目击者现场CPR及OHCA发生地点是OHCA患儿最终存活的独立预测因子.意外伤害性疾病(69/221,31.22%)与复杂先天性心脏病(46/221,20.82%)是儿科OHCA主要原因.小于1岁年龄组是儿科OHCA的最好发年龄段(145/221,65.61%).结论 儿科OHCA患者存活率低,预后差,加强意外伤害预防、早期目击者CPR,能减少DHCA的发生率及改善预后.     

儿科院外心跳停止的流行病学特点与预后

目的 总结儿科院外心跳停止(OHCA)病例的流行病学特点与预后.方法 回顾性研究2001年1月至2009年12月我院急诊创伤中心(EDTC)收治的OHCA患儿的临床资料,分析与预后相关的因素[年龄、性别、转运工具、有无目击者、是否现场给予心肺复苏(CPR)、OHCA发生地点、OHCA可能原因及治疗等].结果 9年中共收治221例OHCA患儿,男女之比为1.15:1,经急诊抢救恢复自主循环(ROSC)77例(34.84%),出院时存活21例(9.50%).OHCA发生时有目击者、现场给予CPR、初始复苏时使用.肾上腺素使用次数、OHCA发生场所、救护车转运是急诊复苏成功的良好预测指标.初始复苏时肾上腺素使用次数、目击者现场CPR及OHCA发生地点是OHCA患儿最终存活的独立预测因子.意外伤害性疾病(69/221,31.22%)与复杂先天性心脏病(46/221,20.82%)是儿科OHCA主要原因.小于1岁年龄组是儿科OHCA的最好发年龄段(145/221,65.61%).结论 儿科OHCA患者存活率低,预后差,加强意外伤害预防、早期目击者CPR,能减少DHCA的发生率及改善预后.     

Pediatric submersions: prehospital predictors of outcome.

This retrospective cohort study was conducted to test prehospital prognostic indicators in pediatric submersion victims. The authors studied all less than 20 years old victims submerged in the non-icy waters of King County, WA who were treated by Seattle or King County Emergency Medical Services between 1985 and 1989 and were hospitalized or died. Seventy-seven victims were identified from emergency medical services incident logs, hospital discharge records, and medical examiner's registries. Outcome predictors were correlated with the victim's condition at hospital discharge. Of 29 victims in cardiac arrest, 13 had return of spontaneous circulation following field resuscitation. Of these, 6 (21%) survived, with mild (n = 2) and severe (n = 4) neurologic impairment at hospital discharge. The best outcome predictors were obtained in the field. These were, for death or severe neurologic impairment, submersion durations > 10 minutes (6/6) and resuscitation durations > 25 minutes (17/17), and for good outcome, sinus rhythm (37/37), reactive pupils (43/43), and neurologic responsiveness (40/40) at the scene. Field-determined factors were reproducibly good outcome predictors. Aggressive emergency medical services may save the lives of pediatric victims in cardiac arrest following short submersion durations. The data support pronouncing dead in the field those pediatric victims of non-icy submersions who do not respond to advanced life support within 25 minutes.     

Cardiopulmonary resuscitation of apparently stillborn infants: survival and long-term outcome

To determine the outcome of apparently stillborn infants who received cardiopulmonary resuscitation, we studied the short- and long-term outcome of 93 infants who had an Apgar score of 0 at 1 minute of age and were resuscitated at birth. Sixty-two (66.6%) responded and left the delivery room alive; 26 (42%) of the 62 infants died in the neonatal period and 36 infants were discharged home; of the 36 infants, three subsequently died during infancy. Of the 33 survivors, ten were lost to follow-up after discharge. Developmental assessment of 23 of 33 long-term survivors revealed normal outcome in 14 (61.7%), abnormal results in 6 (26%), and suspect status in 3 (13%). Fifty-eight infants had an Apgar score of 0 at greater than or equal to 10 minutes of age and all except one died; the surviving infant has an abnormal developmental outcome. We conclude that 39% of apparently stillborn infants who were resuscitated survived beyond the neonatal period and that 61% of the 23 survivors who were available for developmental follow-up had normal development at the time of last examination. Survival was unlikely if there was no response after 10 minutes of resuscitation.     

Pediatric cardiopulmonary resuscitation. A review of 130 cases

Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) records of 130 pediatric patients with cardiac arrest were reviewed. Ninety-six resuscitations were performed on patients hospitalized on the Medical and Surgical units of the Children's Hospital of Philadelphia (HP) and 34 on Emergency Department patients (EDPs). In HP, initial survival was 90%. In 27% of HPs, airway and breathing techniques alone were life saving. A mean of 2.45 drugs per patient were used for HP. In EDP, initial survival was 56%. There had been advanced CPR during the prehospital transport phase for the EDPs. All but two EDPs required drug management. The mean was 4.25 drugs per patient. Lidocaine and direct current defibrillation were used only rarely. Glucose was used frequently (33%) and should be considered in the list of essential resuscitation drugs. The necessity for resuscitation was most commonly associated with pulmonary diseases. These findings reflect differences between pediatric CPR and adult CPR, and suggest limitations in applying adult standards to infants and children. It is suggested that the medical community develop separate pediatric CPR courses as independent modules for those who assume responsibility for resuscitating children.     

PALS update 2010

During the past decade, guidelines for cardiopulmonary resuscitation have focused on the importance of high quality CPR. The purpose is to temporarily maintain a circulation to vital organs until specialized treatment is available. In, essence, it has been a revolution in pediatric resuscitation in terms of “coming full circle” to the 1960s when basic CPR was first developed. A fifth component to the pediatric chain of survival has been added with emphasis on integrated post cardiac arrest care. With mounting scientific evidences, American Heart Association published new Pediatric Advanced life support 2010 guidelines in accordance with the established five yearly cycle of guideline changes.     

Outcome Predictors of Pediatric Extracorporeal Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation

Extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation (ECPR) allows clinicians to potentially rescue pediatric patients unresponsive to traditional cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR). Clinical and laboratory variables predictive of survival to hospital discharge are beginning to emerge. In this retrospective, historical cohort case series, clinical, and laboratory data from 31 pediatric patients (<21 years of age) receiving ECPR from March 2000 to April 2006 at our university-affiliated, tertiary-care children’s hospital were statistically analyzed in an attempt to identify variables predictive of survival to hospital discharge. Seven patients survived to hospital discharge (23%), and 24 patients died. Survival was independent of gender, age, and CPR duration. ECPR survival was, however, associated with a lower pre-ECPR phosphorus concentration (P = 0.002) and a lower pre-ECPR creatinine concentration (P = 0.05). A classification tree analysis, using, in part, a pre-ECPR phosphorus concentration threshold and a CPR ABG base excess concentration threshold, yielded a 96% nominal accuracy of predicting survival to hospital discharge or death. A large, multicenter, prospective cohort study aimed at validating these predictive variables is needed to guide appropriate ECPR patient selection. This study reveals the potential survival benefit of ECPR for pediatric patients, regardless of CPR duration prior to ECPR cannulation.