Intergenerational private transfers: Portugal in the European context

Intergenerational private transfers should be made important as a common occurrence in familialistic societies when establishing the identity of Southern European welfare state regimes. They function as a safety net and as a way of reinforcing the bonds amongst elements in a family. Although Portugal is undoubtedly a Southern European country, it is frequently ignored in comparative studies, and is assumed to share the characteristics of Spain and Italy. But do these countries really belong to a common, distinctive model? Portugal was included in the fourth wave of the survey of health, ageing and retirement in Europe, which provides a large sample for the study of intergenerational private transfers in this country. It also enables comparison with what happens elsewhere in Europe. We examine the upward and downward flows between generations and identify several important determinants of each type of transfers. Additionally, we show that the different types and directions of transfers are positively correlated, pointing to a self-reinforcement of transfer behaviour in families. We find that Portugal has an especially low probability of private transfers of time and money. After taking into consideration the household-level characteristics, none of the countries included in this study has a significantly lower probability of occurrence of any type of transfer than that of Portugal. A Southern European specific pattern of family transfers is only partially confirmed, yet Portugal and Spain do share the same model.     

Importance of family for quality of life of the elderly in a social and cultural comparison

This paper explores the role of the family and its contribution to quality of life in old age under a comparative perspective, looking at different European welfare states (Norway, Germany, Spain and Israel). The literature demonstrates a consistent association between well-being and social networks in old age. Intergenerational family relations seem to be of special relevance in their contribution to health and well-being of older family members. Key features of intergenerational relationships include association, help, and support. However, in modern welfare states, certain tasks traditionally performed by families are covered by services. To assess the relative impact of families and the welfare state and to understand the interaction between them both a comparative perspective is needed analyzing diverse cultures and welfare regimes. Cultural and societal contexts are of central importance in exploring and understanding the complex association between family relations and the quality of life of the elderly. It is hypothesized that there is an interaction between family structure and welfare state transfers. This hypothesis states that the relationship between family structure and quality of life depends on the type of welfare state and welfare state transfers and services. Hence, the relationship between quality of life and family support should be strong only in those cases where welfare state transfers are low. The empirical results partly confirm the theoretical assumptions of welfare state regime dependence of the children's effect on the elder's quality of life. Three out of the four analyzed countries show results that strongly support the hypothesis of an intervening effect of welfare state systems on the connection between family and overall quality of life in old age. However, further analyses are needed. First, more sensitive indicators of parent-child relations have to be used. Second, needs and their intervening effects on the direct linkages between children and quality of life have to be taken into account in more complex analyses. Third, more elaborated indicators of "quality of life" should be used in future analyses.     

Intergenerational solidarity and the family–welfare state balance

The article addresses the strength and character of intergenerational family solidarity under different family cultures and welfare state regimes in order to answer the following two questions: (1) Is intergenerational solidarity stronger under the more collectivist southern family tradition than under the more individualist northern tradition? (2) Is more generous access to social care services a risk or a resource for family care? These questions are explored with data from the OASIS project, a comparative study among the urban populations aged 25+ (n=6,106) in Norway, England, Germany, Spain, and Israel. The findings indicate that the welfare state has not crowded out the family in elder care, but has rather helped the generations establish more independent relationships. Intergenerational solidarity is substantial in both the northern and southern welfare state regimes, and seems to vary in character more than in strength.     

Family, state, class and solidarity: re-conceptualising intergenerational solidarity through the grounded theory approach

The relationship between class and intergenerational solidarities in the public and private spheres calls for further conceptual and theoretical development. This article discusses the findings from the first wave of a qualitative longitudinal study entitled Changing Generations, conducted in Ireland in 2011–2012, comprising 100 in-depth interviews with men and women across the age and socioeconomic spectrums. Constructivist grounded theory analysis of the data gives rise to the following postulates: (1) intergenerational solidarity at the family level is strongly contoured by socioeconomic status (SES); (2) intergenerational solidarity evolves as family generations observe each others’ practices and adjust their expectations accordingly; (3) intergenerational solidarity within families is also shaped by the public sphere (the welfare state) that generates varying expectations and levels of solidarity regarding State supports for different age groups, again largely dependent on SES; (4) the liberal welfare state context, especially at a time of economic crisis, enhances the significance of intergenerational solidarity within families. We conclude by calling for research that is attuned to age/generation, gender and class, and how these operate across the family and societal levels.     

Intergenerational support among migrant families in Europe

Intergenerational support is important throughout the individual life course and a major mechanism of cultural continuity. In this study, we analyse support between older parents and their adult children among international migrant and non-migrant populations in North, Centre and Southern Europe. Data from the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe are used to compare upward and downward practical support, grandparenting, and frequency of contact among 62,213 parent–child dyads. Findings indicate limited differences in support between migrants and non-migrants as well as between migrants of various origins. However, persistent differences in intergenerational support across Europe along a north–south gradient are found irrespective of migrant status.     

Reziprozität zwischen erwachsenen Generationen:

Intergenerational relations are characterised by reciprocal transfers and solidarity over the shared life span. Children care for their elderly parents, and parents support their adult children financially, for example, during their education or when they start their own household and family. From a life course-perspective, we analysed mutual transfers between parents and their adult children: Are transfers balanced over the life course and family-stages? Do we find patterns of direct or indirect reciprocity? Which factors facilitate exchange, and which do not? Using multinomial multilevel regression analyses based on the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe (SHARE) we trace transfers of time and money between parents and adult children back to opportunity, need and family structures. Remaining differences between European countries are explained by cultural contextual structures, here: family expenditures. The exchange between generations is reciprocal, but not necessarily balanced in various phases of family life.     

Intergenerational transfers and living arrangements of older people in rural China: consequences for psychological well-being

OBJECTIVE: The migration of working-age adults from rural to urban China has altered traditional patterns of living arrangements and intergenerational support among elderly persons who remain in rural regions. This investigation examined how household composition and support exchanges with adult children influenced the psychological well-being of older parents in rural China. METHODS: Data derived from a 2001 survey of 1,561 parents aged 60 and older living in rural Anhui Province, China. We used multiple regression in order to estimate the effects of multigenerational living arrangements and intergenerational transfers of financial, instrumental, and emotional support on depression and life satisfaction in older parents. RESULT: Older parents living in three-generation households or with grandchildren in skipped-generation households had better psychological well-being than those living in single-generation households. Receiving greater remittances from adult children increased well-being and explained why living with grandchildren was beneficial. Stronger emotional cohesion with children also improved well-being. DISCUSSION: These results suggest that traditional family arrangements are beneficial in rural Chinese society as they represent the fulfillment of a cultural ideal. We discuss implications in the context of the corporate Chinese family, characterized by mutual aid and interdependence across generations, and its adaptation to social change.     

European patterns of intergenerational financial and time transfers

The ageing of the European population is expected to strongly influence both the structure of family relations and the pattern of private transfers between generations. Using data from the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe conducted from the perspective of adults aged 50 and above in ten European countries, we provide an analysis of financial and time transfers, either given or received. Our results show that cash gifts mainly flow to the younger generations, while time transfers are directed both upwards and downwards. When comparing the countries, we find some remarkable similarity in the pattern of transfers, although there are inter-country differences. These differences sometimes follow the expected north-south European gradient, but not always. The results suggest that the social and demographic transformations currently taking place in Europe often have contradictory and paradoxical effects upon the nature of intergenerational exchanges.

The impact of family structure and disruption on intergenerational emotional exchange in Eastern Europe

Demographic trends across Europe involve a decrease in fertility and mortality rates, and an increase in divorce and stepfamily formation. Life courses and living arrangements have become less standardized and the structure of families has changed. In this article, we examine to what extent contemporary family structure and composition resulting from demographic changes affect emotional exchange between children and their parents, both from adult child to parent and from parent to child. Because the general level of well-being has been shown to be lower in Eastern Europe, thereby potentially affecting emotional exchange within families, we focus our research on Eastern Europe. We use the "conservation of resources theory" to derive hypotheses on how family structure may affect intergenerational emotional exchange. Family ties are assumed to be important resources of affection that people want to obtain and retain throughout their lives. Data from the Generations and Gender Survey (GGS) are used to test our hypotheses. In general, our data offer more support for the idea that families are resilient than for the often heard assumption that families are in decline as a consequence of the changed family structure and composition.     

Families and intergenerational relationships in aging societies: comparing the United States with German-speaking countries

Summary Industrialized nations have experienced many demographic changes favoring older adults during the last few decades of the 20^th century. This article is a comparative examination of current and future trends in intergenerational relationships and aging in two societies: the United States and German-speaking countries. While comparing similarities and significant differences between the cultures, we examine five issues related to these trends for families and intergenerational relationships in the 21^st century: (1) consequences of population aging for family structures and relationships – the emergence of the beanpole family structure and the longer years of linked lives across generations; (2) the debate about the decline of the family; (3) intergenerational solidarity over the life course; (4) intergenerational conflict across the life course; (5) prospects for solidarity and conflict between generations in the 21^st century. Similarities between cultures include the demographic realities of population aging, the shift from pyramids to beanpoles, more years of shared lives between and across generations, more non-traditional family forms, and intergenerational conflicts in families. Differences include diverse replacement fertility rates, alternative approaches to governmental supports for families and aging members, and possible differences in cultural values regarding individualism. Received: 8 January 2000 Accepted: 26 September 2000     

Reciprocity in parent-child relations over the adult life course.

OBJECTIVES: This research assessed how parents' transfers of sentiment, time, and financial assets to their adolescent/young adult children affect the children's propensity in middle age to provide social support to their aging parents. We tested whether the mechanism of long-term intergenerational exchange is better modeled as a return on investment, an insurance policy triggered by the longevity or physical frailty of parents, or the result of altruistic (or other nonreciprocal) motivations on the part of adult children. METHODS: Models were examined with 6 waves of data from the University of Southern California Longitudinal Study of Generations. The sample consisted of 501 children who participated in the 1971 survey and who had at least 1 parent surviving in 1985. Growth curve modeling was applied to predict average levels and rates of change in social support provided to mothers and fathers between 1985 and 1997 as a function of early parental transfers of affection, association, and tangible resources to their children. RESULTS: Children who spent more time in shared activities with their mothers and fathers in 1971 provided more support to them on average. Receiving greater financial support from parents in 1971 raised the marginal rate at which support provided by children increased over time. Maternal health operated synergistically with early affection to produce greater levels of support. Both levels and rates of increase in support from children were positive, even for children who received no early transfers from their parents. DISCUSSION: The results offer some support for investment, insurance, and altruistic models of intergenerational exchange. Sharing time in activities provides a direct return to the parent that is characteristic of an investment strategy, whereas financial transfers provide a time-contingent return that is characteristic of an insurance mechanism. That affection triggers greater support to more functionally impaired mothers suggests that emotionally investing in children as a health insurance mechanism may be based on the greater moral equity accorded to mothers. The motivation of adult children to provide social support to their older parents is partially rooted in earlier family experiences and guided by an implicit social contract that ensures long-term reciprocity.     

Disembedding and remoralization. Old age security and intergenerational relations in globalized welfare capitalism

The article reconstructs the changes in provision for old age since the 19th century with regard to the ensuing change in intergenerational relationships. The first finding is a broadening of the arenas of provision for old age, a historical cumulation of family (which is still relevant), welfare state and, increasingly, private provision in financial markets, adding up to a 'welfare mix' in old age. This implies a complexification of intergenerational relationships. The second finding is an ambivalent qualitative change: on the one hand relationships between generations become more anonymous and disembedded from primary social relationships; on the other hand they are politicized (they become a public issue) and remoralized. This ambivalence applies to bureaucratic provision for old age in the welfare state, i.e., to social insurance. The main thesis is that--contrary to neoliberal belief--private old-age security in global financial markets cannot be seen as individualistic and moral-free but constitutes an anonymous exchange relationship between generations on financial markets that also raises issues of intergenerational justice. We can expect that these abstract relationships between generations will be politicized and remoralized as a consequence. Welfare state and financial markets offer solutions to problems of previous forms of provision for old age but they also produce new problems of intergenerational relationships.     

Elder respect among young adults: Exploration of behavioral forms in Korea

Koreans, along with the Chinese and the Japanese, have practiced elder respect for generations. As Korea has undergone rapid industrialization, this age-old practice has become an issue of major concern for policy makers and gerontologists. However, there has been little investigation of this important and timely issue. As currently conceptualized, elder respect is too general and abstract for use in practice and research. This study explored specific ways in which young adults treat the elderly with respect. Based on data from a questionnaire survey of college students in South Korea, the study identified a comprehensive set of behavioral forms of elder respect that ranged from care respect to public respect. A typology of 14 forms of elder respect emerged. The meanings of these forms, certain cultural traits associated with the forms, changing expressions of respect, and the needs for future research are discussed. His areas of interest include cross-cultural study of aging and family, intergenerational relations, and values and practices of parent care. His areas of interest include cross-cultural study of social welfare, values and practices of parent care, and social welfare administration.     

Who Supports Whom? Gender and Intergenerational Transfers in Post-Industrial Barbados

This study examines the likelihood that older adults and their children in Bridgetown, Barbados engage in exchanges of financial, functional, and material support and the extent to which gender influences transfers. Data come from the 2000 Survey of Health, Well-Being and Aging in Latin America and the Caribbean (SABE) of Bridgetown, Barbados N?=?3876 children, representing 1135 families. Multivariate logistic regression models examine the demographic and economic situations of both older and younger cohorts that encourage or constrain intergenerational exchanges. Results confirm, as in many developing countries, a higher proportion of older Barbadians receive rather than provide support. Gender differentiation in support transfers depends on the type of support examined and the living arrangements of parents and children. Support exchanges are highly conditioned by the socioeconomic circumstances of both generations but gender stratification in the labor market does not appear to mediate support exchanges. These findings suggest some flexibility in gender systems with respect to intergenerational support within Barbado.

     

The relationship of intergenerational reciprocity of aid to the morale of older parents: equity and exchange theory comparisons

Information concerning the relationship of intergenerational helping to older adult well-being is ambiguous. Intergenerational reciprocity was investigated using two competing theoretical perspectives, social exchange and equity propositions. Social exchange propositions predict a linear relationship between intergenerational aid and older parent morale, with higher morale positively related to giving or receiving more intergenerational help. Equity propositions predict that the intergenerational aid, morale relationship will be curvilinear, with higher older parent morale related to balanced exchanges of intergenerational aid. Neither theoretical perspective was supported by the data. Intergenerational aid was not useful in explaining variance in older parent morale regardless of the operational definition of intergenerational aid. These results provide support for earlier studies that conclude the amount of help exchanged within families does not affect the well-being of older family members.     

Contacts between elderly parents and their children in four European countries: current patterns and future prospects

Frequency of contacts with the family is an indicator of the strength of intergenerational exchange and potential support for older people. Although the availability of children clearly represents a constraint on potential family support, the extent of interaction with and support received from children depends on factors other than demographic availability alone. This study examined the effects of socio-economic and demographic variables on weekly contacts with children in Great Britain, Italy, Finland and The Netherlands using representative survey data which included information on availability of children and extent of contact. Our results confirm the higher level of parent adult-child contact in Italy than in northern European countries, but levels of contact in all the countries considered were high. Multivariate analysis showed that in most countries characteristics such as divorce were associated with a reduced probability of contact between fathers and children; in Finland this also influenced contact between mothers and children. Analyses are also included of possible future scenarios of contact with children that combine the observed effects of the explanatory variables with hypothetical changes in population distribution.     

?konomisierung von Pflege in Gro?britannien, Schweden und Deutschland

This article deals with long-term care policies in three different welfare and long-term care regimes. Despite of divergent regime assignments—Great Britain: liberal welfare state und means-tested long-term care regime, Sweden: social–democratic welfare state and social services long-term care regime, and Germany: conservative–corporatist welfare state and subsidiarity long-term care regime—all three countries restructured their long-term care policies during the 1990s in the context of neoliberal economization and marketization. All countries introduced efficiency-oriented measures, foster competition between different social service providers, and increase choices of people in need of elderly care. By analyzing the regulation of long-term care policies since the National Health Service and Community Care Act (1990) in Great Britain, the ?del reform (1992) in Sweden, and the introduction of the long-term care insurance (1994) in Germany, it can be shown that specific, national pathways, which due to the divergence of regimes and the specific long-term care problems within a country, have evolved.     

Diversity and Structure of Intergenerational Relationships: Elderly Parent–Adult Child Relations in Korea

Korean society has undergone a rapid demographic transition that has challenged traditional patterns of family exchanges. The structure and directions of support flows have become more complex as multiple generations coexist. This article examines the complexity of contemporary Korean intergenerational relationships. The study analyzed two different samples to address anticipated differences in perceptions of and attitudes toward relationships between adult children and elderly parents. The researchers used maximum likelihood latent structure analysis to discover the latent patterns of the association among three main subdimensions of intergenerational relationships: geographic proximity, exchange of support, and cultural norms of family support. Results show that the perspectives on intergenerational relationships differ significantly between middle-aged children and elderly parents. Intergenerational relationships among middle-aged adults comprise five distinct patterns: strong reciprocal, strong traditional, intermediate normative, intermediate circumstantial, and weak. The interpretation of intergenerational relationships from the elders’ perspectives is more straightforward, with only three patterns: traditional, reciprocal, and weak. Along with significant socioeconomic differences in the prevalent patterns of intergenerational relationships, these results emphasize the complex interplay of contingency and path dependency in diversifying the value and support exchanges of intergenerational relationships.     

Children's support for elderly parents in urban and rural China: Results from a national survey

This study examines the factors that determine adult children's financial support for elderly parents, using data from the China Survey on Support Systems for the Elderly conducted in 1992. The findings support the hypotheses of need-based transfers. In both urban and rural areas, children's financial transfers to their elderly parents are based on the parents' need, and familial support compensates for inequalities in elderly persons' access to public resources. The data also suggest that elderly support is an outcome of short- and long-term arrangements between generations. Elderly Chinese, especially those in urban areas, have short-term exchanges with their adult children, providing housing or other services and receiving financial support in return. Also, adult children's support for elderly parents may be a repayment of parental investment made in them earlier.