Effect of partner's gender on early pretend play: a preliminary study of Singapore Chinese preschoolers

This study examined the developmental trend of pretend play behaviour and the effect of partner's gender in Singaporean preschoolers. Peer dyadic play among 70 children, ranging in age from three to five years, was observed in a standardised toy play context. Videotaped recordings of the play were analysed using two scales – the Smilansky Scale for Evaluation of Dramatic and Socio-dramatic Play and the Symbolic Play Scale. The results indicated an age-related developmental trend for pretend play in general; no main effect for gender and gender composition of dyads was found. However, remarkably significant gender composition effects were identified in certain age groups, with children from same-gender dyads outperforming those from mixed-gender dyads. The period between ages three and four was identified as critical for pretend play development, and the fifth year of life was identified as critical for the development of gender segregation in play behaviours.     

Continuity of Care for Infants and Toddlers

Theory and research support the need for continuity of caregiving for infants and toddlers, yet current practice often ignores that need. In many child care centers, children are promoted to a new class when they reach a specific milestone, such as a birthday. In other cases, frequent teacher turnover and parental choice add to very young children's discontinuity of care. At the Child and Family Research Center of the University of Nevada, Reno, Infants and toddlers stay with the same teacher for the first 3 years of life. Many benefits are seen from this practice, particularly in the close relationship between children and teachers. Children's attachment to their teachers is evident in the security with which they explore their environment. Another major benefit of this 3-year continuity of children with teachers is the close relationship that develops between the parents and the teachers. Close bonds are forged between the adults who have nurtured and watched their babies develop over a 3 year period Into competent preschoolers. In addition, yearly transitions to new classrooms, which better match the children's growing developmental skills, are eased when the entire group of children and adults move together. In some classes, there is a relatively wide range In ages of children, yet this age span has not proven to be a concern; children become very dose to and protective of members of their cohort and adapt to the varying developmental abilities of peers. The practice of keeping a group of infants with their primary teacher for a 3 year period is highly recommended by the staff of the Child and Family Research Center for other infant programs because it is developmentally important for very young children.     

Young motherhood and infant hospitalization during the first year of life.

We studied the relationship of young maternal age with infant hospitalization using data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth for 3,130 infants born between 1979 and 1983 to mothers aged 14-25 years. Data on the mothers were first collected in 1979 and yearly thereafter. Data on their children were collected starting in 1982. Logistic regressions of infant hospitalization rates were estimated for first and second and higher births. The odds of infant hospitalization during the first year of life increased with decreasing maternal age, even with adjustment for sociodemographic characteristics, preventive health-care practices, and newborn health status, factors hypothesized to explain the maternal age effect. The maternal age relationship with hospitalization differed by birth order; among second and higher births, the odds of hospitalization was increased only for infants of mothers aged 20-22 years. Male infants, infants with a first well-baby visit after the first month of life, with birth weights between 1501 and 2500 g, and with nursery stays longer than 1 week also had increased odds of hospitalization. Ethnicity, grandmother's education, poverty status, mother's school enrollment, and family composition were not related to the odds of hospitalization, nor was smoking during pregnancy when adjustment was made for birth weight and length of nursery stay.     

Multicultural education: A black perspective

Much of the behaviour of children within any preschool programme is directed and influenced by their teachers. Studies have indicated that if integrated programming for preschoolers is to be successful then the behaviours and attitudes of the teachers are crucial. In this study student teachers enrolled in a training programme were involved in programme development and implementation. The adult interactions with special needs and nonspecial needs preschoolers enrolled in two programmes were observed. Video tapes of each child were made at four different free play periods in each of two twelve week programme sessions. Questioning was by far the most frequent type of adult‐child interaction. Special needs children were asked many more questions than their nonspecial needs peers. In particular, the most questions asked were closed ones, requiring a yes/no or one word response. Questioning appeared to be used as a way to elicit speech from special needs children. Adults provided more explanations to nonspecial needs children, they responded to the children more frequently and engaged in more conversational interaction and maintenance functions. With special needs children, adults directed and ordered them. Training programmes could help adults to overcome acting in a stereotyped way toward special needs children.     

Adult-child interaction in an integrated preschool programme: Implications for teacher training

Much of the behaviour of children within any preschool programme is directed and influenced by their teachers. Studies have indicated that if integrated programming for preschoolers is to be successful then the behaviours and attitudes of the teachers are crucial. In this study student teachers enrolled in a training programme were involved in programme development and implementation. The adult interactions with special needs and nonspecial needs preschoolers enrolled in two programmes were observed. Video tapes of each child were made at four different free play periods in each of two twelve week programme sessions. Questioning was by far the most frequent type of adult-child interaction. Special needs children were asked many more questions than their nonspecial needs peers. In particular, the most questions asked were closed ones, requiring a yes/no or one word response. Questioning appeared to be used as a way to elicit speech from special needs children. Adults provided more explanations to nonspecial needs children, they responded to the children more frequently and engaged in more conversational interaction and maintenance functions. With special needs children, adults directed and ordered them. Training programmes could help adults to overcome acting in a stereotyped way toward special needs children.     

Redecoration of apartments promotes obstructive bronchitis in atopy risk infants--results of the LARS Study

Findings by other authors indicate that exposure to chemical emissions from indoor paint is related to asthma symptoms in adults. In their first years of life children are receptive to obstructive airway diseases. The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of redecoration of the apartment on airway symptoms in infants during the first two years of life. The Leipzig Allergy Risk Children Study (LARS) is a birth cohort study with the following inclusion criteria: double positive family atopy anamnesis, cord blood IgE > 0.9 kU/l, or low birth weight between 1500-2500 g. Within the context of LARS, 186 parents of risk children completed a questionnaire on the respiratory symptoms of their children and the redecoration of their apartment at the end of the first and second year of life. A total 22% of the children suffered from obstructive bronchitis once or more during their first year, and 11% experienced this condition during their second year of life. Redecoration of the apartment had a significant influence on the appearance of obstructive bronchitis in the first (OR 4.1 95% CI 1.4-11.9) and in the second year of life (OR 4.2 95% CI 1.4-12.9). (The OR are adjusted for cord blood-IgE > 0.9 kU/l, birth weight < or = 2500 g, male sex and double positive parental atopy anamnesis, dampness, smoking or pet in the apartment). Simultaneous contamination from redecoration activities and additional exposures such as smoking, a pet or dampness in the apartment increased the risk for obstructive bronchitis in the first year (OR 9.1; 95% CI 2.3-34.8) as well as in the second year (OR 5.1; 95% CI 1.6-15.6). Our data suggest that redecoration of the apartment is associated with the development of acute inflammations, but not with a chronic influence on the airways in atopy risk infants. At an exposure to more than one environmental factor, pronounced effects were seen.     

Nasal staphylococci in children--a follow-up study.

Nasal carriage of Staphylococcus aureus was studied in a cohort of infants born to the residents of two towns in South Wales. The children were followed up to the ge of 5 years, nasal swabs being taken annually after a more detailed survey during the first year. The carriage-rate of S. aureus reached a minimum of 10-15% at one year and then rose steadily to 41% at five years. From the age of two years about 90% of the organisms isolated were resistant to penicillin. There was a marked tendency for children to carry the same strains from year to year, but carriage during the first year of life did not predict carriage at the age of five.     

Comparative analysis of childhood morbidity depending on the type of feeding

Retrospective and prospective studies were made in 1248 infants of the first year of life and in 642 children aged 7 to 14 years who lived in Kirov and its region. The purpose of the study was to evaluate the impact of different types of feeding on their morbidity. The children who had received an artificial feeding were ascertained to be more frequently ill both in their first year of life and at an older age.     

Waking at night: the effect of early feeding experience

Summary The mothers of 180 preschool children were interviewed in their homes in a survey of feeding preferences and sleeping behaviour. We report here on the differences in current sleeping patterns and the age at which night feeds were dropped. There are clear differences in these two behaviours according to whether the baby was breast or bottle fed, and this result is not explicable in terms of social class. Night feeds disappear more slowly in the breast fed infant, and the problem of night waking both in the first year of life and when at nursery school appears to be associated with earlier breast feeding. The importance of such a finding is discussed in relation to the advice offered to mothers by health professionals.     

小于胎龄儿生长发育的研究进展

近年来,随着“二胎”政策的全面开放以及高危新生儿救治水平的不断提高,我国高龄孕妇及缺陷胎儿比例逐年增加,小于胎龄儿(SGA)所面临的生长发育问题也逐渐显露.SGA是指出生体重低于同胎龄儿平均体重的第10百分位(P10)或低于相同胎龄儿平均体重2个标准差者.研究表明,SGA在体格生长及神经行为发育上与适于胎龄儿(AGA)...     

The effects of prior experience in early childhood programs and play setting on social behaviour and play in preschoolers

Two studies exploring the effects of prior experience in early childhood programs and play setting [inside vs outside] on the social behaviour of preschoolers are reported. In both studies, four-year-old children currently attending preschool were observed during inside and outside free play. Parten's [1932] social participation classification was used. In the first study, the behaviour of children who had attended sessions at a similar preschool in the preceding year was found to be significantly more social during inside play than children with no prior experience in an early childhood program. Play was significantly more social outside for the group as a whole. In the second study, preschoolers with prior experience-in a range of early childhood programs were observed. Again, play was found to be significantly more social outside, but the results of Study 1 in relation to prior experience were not supported. No differences were found in the social nature of the children's play according to the extent of their experience in early childhood programs. These results are discussed in relation to the ongoing impact of early childhood programs, the importance of the currently-attended program and the potential role of outdoor settings in interventions with socially isolated or withdrawn children, or others in integrated groups.     

Use of acute hospital beds does not increase as the population ages: results from a seven year cohort study in Germany

OBJECTIVES: (1) To compare the number of hospital days used by survivors with those by persons in their last, second last, and third last year of life in relation to age; (2) to analyse lifelong hospital utilisation in relation to life expectancy. DESIGN: Cohort study using a 10% sample (stratified by age and sex) of persons insured by one sickness fund. SETTING: Germany, 1989-1995. SUBJECTS: 69,847 survivors (with a minimum of three more years to live), 1385 persons in last, 1368 in second last, and 1333 in third last year of life. RESULTS: The number of days spent in hospital in the last year of life was lowest for the young (24.2 days under age 25) and the old (23.2 days at age 85+) and was greatest at ages 55-64 (40.6 days). The ratio of days to survivors was highest at age 35-44 (31.0) and fell continuously thereafter to 4.3 at age 85+. Similar patterns were seen for hospital days in the second and third year before death, except that peaks were at 35-44 years (22.5 and 13.7 days respectively). Calculated lifelong number of hospital days increased with age from 54.8 (death at age 20) to 201.0 (age 90). Numbers of hospital days per year of life, averaged over the entire lifespan, were stable at 2.0-2.2 for deaths between age 50 and 90 (and up to 2.7 at age 20). CONCLUSIONS: Lifelong hospital utilisation for persons who die at 50 or later is directly proportional to the number of years lived. These data contradict results from cross sectional studies that suggest an exponential rise in health care costs as longevity increases. They have important implications for projections of future health care expenditure.     

Growth and dietary status of preterm and term infants during the first two years of life

This study compared growth, food intake and feeding problems in appropriate weight for gestational age sequela-free preterm and term infants at 4, 8, 12 and 24 months adjusted age. Growth deficits were frequent in the preterm infants, especially during the first year of life with a tendency to "catch up" during the second year. Normal head growth and arm muscle area were documented in this selected group of infants but triceps skinfold thicknesses were deficient, especially during the first year. Food consumption patterns and energy intake differed with higher energy intake in the preterm group. Feeding problems were only slightly more frequent in the preterm infants. The only factor associated with energy intake in the preterm infants was duration of neonatal hospital stay. Weight percentile was associated with birthweight and socioeconomic status in term infants, and birthweight, hospital stay and "fussy eater" in preterms at specific ages.     

Efficacy of human rotavirus vaccine against severe gastroenteritis in Malawian children in the first two years of life: a randomized, double-blind, placebo controlled trial

Rotavirus gastroenteritis is a major cause of morbidity and mortality among African infants and young children. A phase III, placebo-controlled, multi-centre clinical trial of a live, oral G1P[8] human rotavirus vaccine (RIX4414) undertaken in Malawi and South Africa significantly reduced the incidence of severe rotavirus gastroenteritis in the first year of life. We now report on vaccine efficacy in the Malawi cohort of children who were followed into the second year of life. A total of 1773 healthy infants were enrolled in Blantyre, Malawi into three groups. Two groups received three doses of RIX4414 or placebo at age 6, 10, and 14 weeks and the third group received placebo at 6 weeks and RIX4414 at age 10 and 14 weeks. Subjects were followed by weekly home visits for episodes of gastroenteritis until 1 year of age, and were then re-consented for further follow-up to 18-24 months of age. Severity of gastroenteritis episodes was graded according to the Vesikari scoring system. Seroconversion for anti-rotavirus IgA was determined on a subset of children by using ELISA on pre- and post-vaccine blood samples. Rotavirus VP7 (G) and VP4 (P) genotypes were determined by RT-PCR. A total of 70/1030 (6.8%, 95% CI 5.3-8.5) subjects in the pooled (2 dose plus 3 dose) RIX4414 group compared with 53/483 (11.0%, 8.3-14.1) subjects in the placebo group developed severe rotavirus gastroenteritis in the entire follow-up period (vaccine efficacy 38.1% (9.8-57.3)). The point estimate of efficacy in the second year of life (17.6%; -59.2 to 56.0) was lower than in the first year of life (49.4%; 19.2-68.3). There were non-significant trends towards a higher efficacy in the second year of life among children who received the three-dose schedule compared with the two-dose schedule, and a higher anti-rotavirus IgA seroresponse rate in the three-dose RIX4414 group. Rotavirus strains detected included genotype G12 (31%); G9 (23%); and G8 (18%); only 18% of strains belonged to the G1P[8] genotype. While the optimal dosing schedule of RIX4414 in African infants requires further investigation, vaccination with RIX4414 significantly reduced the incidence of severe gastroenteritis caused by diverse rotavirus strains in an impoverished African population with high rotavirus disease burden in the first two years of life.     

Influence of breast milk,soy or two hydrolyzed formulas on the development of allergic manifestations in infants at risk

Background: Infants born to atopic parents are at an increased risk of developing allergy during the first 2 years of life.Objective: To assess the effects of the early introduction of soy, extensively-hydrolyzed casein, or partially-hydrolyzed whey formulas in infants at risk for atopic diseases.Methods: This prospective, double-blind study compared allergic manifestations in 113 formula-fed and 17 breast-fed infants during the first year of life. The children were equally distributed among feeding groups by sex, birth IgE levels, and parental atopy. Study formulas were introduced in the newborn nursery. Gastrointestinal and dermatologic manifestations suggestive of allergy were evaluated at regular intervals during the first year of life.Results: The cumulative incidence of chronic or recurrent vomiting, diarrhea or atopic dermatitis in the first year of life was 18 %. Persistent symptoms led to a formula change in 18 (16 %) of the formula-fed infants (mean age of change: 2.3 months). Formula intolerance was confirmed by an open challenge with the first formula in 15 infants (13%), without significant differences in the number of children with formula changes and positive challenges across all feeding groups.Conclusions: There was no significant difference among the formula groups in the development of symptoms of food intolerance. However, introduction of hydrolyzed cow's milk or soy infant formulas at birth to infants at risk for developing allergy did not completely prevent the development of symptoms commonly attributed to food intolerance. Of the infants who developed intolerance to one of the study formulas 81% improved when changed to a second, randomly-assigned formula, suggesting that intolerance was formula specific.     

Social and demographic factors predictive of change over seven years in CHD-related behaviours in men aged 18-49 years.

It is possible that the relationship of social status to coronary heart disease is partly mediated through health-related behaviours that have been found to relate to both social status and CHD. Changes in certain health-related behaviours are known to lead to changes in CHD incidence. What are the characteristics of men who change or do not change these behaviours and their subsequent chances of CHD? This study aims to relate changes in men's CHD-related behaviours over a seven-year period to their social and demographic characteristics.A survey was carried out on a random sample of adults in Great Britain in 1984-85 and the equivalent information was obtained again on those participants who were re-interviewed seven years later in 1991-92. Results are presented for the 582 men aged 18-34 and the 584 men aged 35-49 at the first interview who were re-interviewed seven years later. Changes over the seven years in smoking, saturated fat intake, alcohol consumption and exercise were related to social and demographic factors.The two age groups showed broadly similar patterns of behaviour. In both age groups, those who continued with or took up a low fat diet and/or exercise were more likely to be in a higher social class, in employment, to live in private housing and to have more educational qualifications. For the younger men only, those in private housing were more likely to reduce the amount they smoked. Other findings are also reported.The findings suggest that those people who are in less advantageous social and economic situations are less likely to change to a more healthy lifestyle and so should be a focus for health education.     

Follow-up of the use of local health department clinics for preventive care among young children.

We followed 18,490 infants from their first visit to a county child health clinic (CHC) in Maryland through visits through their third year of age to investigate whether their continued use of the CHCs was related to their characteristics or to the services they were provided as an infant. We classified as provided services immunization, an Early and Periodic Screening, Diagnosis, and Treatment Program (EPSDT) recommended screening, and number of visits. Immunization was associated with an increased percentage of infants who returned to the CHCs at two and three years of age. Half of the children, on the other hand, never returned to the clinics if they were not immunized as infants. These findings persisted, regardless of race, Medicaid status, completion of a screening, or number of visits in the first year of life. One-fifth of infants did not receive an immunization during one or more visits to CHCs in their first year. Failure to administer an immunization to infants appears to impede subsequent use of public health clinics for well child care.     

Sun exposure and primary prevention of skin cancer for infants and young children during autumn/winter

OBJECTIVE AND METHOD: Excessive sun exposure in childhood has been associated with the development of skin cancer, and appropriate levels of sun protection during the early years of a child's life can significantly reduce the risks. A survey of 133 mothers was undertaken in south-east Queensland to examine the levels of sun exposure and skin protection of infants and young children. RESULTS: Among this sample of 133 mothers, use of appropriate skin protection was relatively high for themselves and their children. However, even by six months of age, a third had been sunburnt and 15% had experienced painful sunburn. By three years of age, 82% had been sunburnt and one-third had experienced painful sunburn, though mothers' knowledge levels of sun safety issues were very high. The predictors associated with primary prevention varied across the type of prevention behaviour, but indicated that interventions should focus on susceptibility to sunburn and history of sunburn. Similar programs could be applicable across a broad range of socio-demographic groups, but require attention to mother's country of birth as a factor that significantly influences their use of protection for their young children. CONCLUSIONS: Ongoing public education that targets specific groups and settings may contribute to adoption of appropriate sun protective behaviours for young children. IMPLICATIONS: Results of the study provide some of the needed baseline data to assist future skin cancer prevention campaigns for young children and infants. A similar study of levels of sun exposure and skin protection for children during summer is under way.     

Parental beliefs about the nature of ADHD behaviours and their relationship to referral intentions in preschool children

BACKGROUND: Parental beliefs about child problem behaviour have emerged as closely related to referral intentions to mental health services. METHODS: This study compared beliefs of severity, impact and advice seeking for attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) behaviours of parents whose preschool children present ADHD behaviours with those of parents whose children do not display such behaviours. Both parents of 295 preschoolers, aged 4-6 years, enrolled in kindergartens in Athens, filled in: (i) a questionnaire composed by a vignette describing a hypothetical 5-year-old child presenting ADHD symptoms followed by rating scales assessing dimensions of severity, impact and referral intention, and (ii) the 'Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire' for screening ADHD behaviours in their own child. RESULTS: Results showed that almost half of the parents who reported ADHD behaviours in their own child replied that they had never met a child exhibiting such behaviours. These parents also perceived such behaviours as being less severe and with less negative family impact than parents who did not report such behaviours in their own child. CONCLUSIONS: Parents whose preschool child displays ADHD behaviours tend to perceive them as normal developmental patterns and may suspend the referral of the child. Implications of these findings for early identification of ADHD are discussed.     

DEVELOPMENTAL PATTERNS OF VISUALLY HANDICAPPED CHILDREN

Summary This article reports a comparative study of the developmental patterns of blind, partially sighted and fully sighted children during the first few years of life. Using the (previous reported) Reynell-Zinkin developmental scale for visually handicapped children, the groups were compared in the five developmental areas of (a) social adaptation, (b) sensori-motor understanding, (c) exploration of environment, (d) verbal comprehension and (e) expressive language. It was found that 10 to 12 months was the age at which the sighted group began to outstrip the visually handicapped children in most of the developmental areas. This divergence increased until towards the upper end of scale (4 to 5 years for the visually handicapped) when more abstract thought processes began to develop. The effect of visual handicap was also seen in the greater advantage of the partially sighted over the blind children. The patterns of development varied somewhat in the five different areas. The reasons for this are discussed. The findings point to the need for intensive help for visually handicapped children from the earliest months of life.