Neonatal size of low socio-economic status Black and White term births in Albany County,NYS

Birth weight has long been a focus of study by epidemiologists and human biologists, because it reflects the quality of the intrauterine environment and may be used as a predictor of future growth and development. Comparisons of Black and White neonates in the USA have consistently shown differences in birth weight. Confounding variables are a major problem in any such investigation, especially socio-economic status which is highly correlated with race in the USA. This study was distinctive in the sampling of one socio-economic stratum (low income), and the use of five anthropometric measures in addition to birth weight. The goals of this study were as follows: to determine if there were differences in body size and body composition at birth in Black and White neonates of low socio-economic status (SES), and to investigate what variables might account for any observed variability. The sample consisted of full term Black and White neonates of low SES (n = 323) born in Albany, NY (1986-1997). Birth weight, length, head and arm circumference, and subscapular and triceps skinfolds were compared. Race was determined through maternal self-identification. White neonates were significantly larger than Black neonates in birth weight, length and head circumference. Among female neonates none of the anthropometric dimensions differed between Blacks and Whites. Among male neonates, Whites were significantly larger than Blacks in birth weight, length, head and arm circumferences. Principal components analysis reduced the six anthropometric dimensions to two summary measures: body size and composition. When controlling for social and biological variables, race and sex were significant predictors of body composition, but not body size. Interpretation of results and possible causal relationships are discussed.     

Anthropometric variability in the USA: 1971-2002

AIM: The study analysed variability in physical stature, weight, and body mass index (BMI) in the USA during 1971-2002. SUBJECTS: Subjects were non-Hispanic Blacks and Whites, 2-74 years of age from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys (NHANES I-III and 1999-2002). METHODS: The coefficient of variation and the standard deviation of the logarithm of stature, weight, and BMI were used to assess anthropometric variability for groups defined by age, race, sex, income, and survey year. Weighted ordinary least squares regressions were used to estimate the effect of socio-economic variables on anthropometric variability. RESULTS: (a) The relation between age and variability in weight or BMI resembles an inverted U, (b) men have lower variability in BMI than women, (c) Blacks and the poor have greater variability in weight and BMI than Whites or than the non-poor, and (d) variability in anthropometric indices increased during 1971-2002. Results were robust to the measure of variability used and to the use of the mean and mean square of the anthropometric indicators as explanatory variables. CONCLUSION: Since anthropometric indices correlate reliably with canonical indicators of well-being (e.g. income), growing variability in anthropometric indices, particularly among the Blacks and the poor, signals growing inequality in quality of life--a worrisome trend.     

Anthropometric variability in the USA: 1971–2002

Aim: The study analysed variability in physical stature, weight, and body mass index (BMI) in the USA during 1971–2002. Subjects: Subjects were non-Hispanic Blacks and Whites, 2–74 years of age from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys (NHANES I–III and 1999–2002). Methods: The coefficient of variation and the standard deviation of the logarithm of stature, weight, and BMI were used to assess anthropometric variability for groups defined by age, race, sex, income, and survey year. Weighted ordinary least squares regressions were used to estimate the effect of socio-economic variables on anthropometric variability. Results: (a) The relation between age and variability in weight or BMI resembles an inverted U, (b) men have lower variability in BMI than women, (c) Blacks and the poor have greater variability in weight and BMI than Whites or than the non-poor, and (d) variability in anthropometric indices increased during 1971–2002. Results were robust to the measure of variability used and to the use of the mean and mean square of the anthropometric indicators as explanatory variables. Conclusion: Since anthropometric indices correlate reliably with canonical indicators of well-being (e.g. income), growing variability in anthropometric indices, particularly among the Blacks and the poor, signals growing inequality in quality of life—a worrisome trend.     

Anthropometric estimation of bone mineral content in young adult females

It was hypothesized that improved prediction of bone mineral content (BMC) would be achieved by an expanded battery of anthropometric variables beyond height and the four extremity diameters used by previous investigators to predict skeletal mass (r = 0.74). Accordingly, sitting height, trunk diameters, chest depth, and head circumference, as well as whole body BMC and bone mineral density (BMD) via dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA), were also measured on 52 young adult females (26 each Blacks and Whites), aged 18 to 30 years. The product of height and the squared sum of four extremity breadths, utilized by previous investigators, resulted in r values of 0.74 and 0.70 for the Black and White groups, respectively. Separate stepwise multiple regressions to predict BMC for each group resulted in a collectively different array of independent variables (though there was some overlap between groups). The multiple regression formula for the Black group (R = 0.88; SEE = 156 g) included height, chest depth, chest diameter at the sixth rib level, and knee bicondylar diameter. That for the White group (R = 0.83; SEE = 193 g) included two diameters (bicondylar and biepicondylar) and head circumference. When anthropometrically estimated values for upper-arm muscle area or upper-leg lean tissue area (which were better correlated to BMD than BMC) were added to these equations, prediction of BMC was further improved (R = 0.91; SEE = 144 g; and R = 0.85; SEE = 187 g, respectively, for the Black and White groups). The major observation in this study was a substantial improvement in the predictive precision of BMC, as assessed by DEXA, via easily obtainable anthropometric data. Further, the SEE values in this totally anthropometric prediction of whole body BMC closely approximate that recently reported for adult females, aged 18–49 years, when including the mid-shaft radial BMC (assessed by single-photon absorptiometry) with height, weight, and body mass index. It is concluded that anthropometric estimation of BMC may be a potentially useful tool to improve the accuracy of percentage body fat estimation assessed by hydrostatic weighing, and that it should be examined in other populations differing significantly in fat-free mass density from the 1.10 g/ml value of the reference man. © 1992 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Periodontal disease as one possible explanation for the Mexican paradox

Mexican-American women have similar low socio-economic status as compared to Non-Hispanic Blacks. However, Mexican-American women have consistently been shown to have a lower rate of low birth weight births as compared to Non-Hispanic Blacks and similar to Non-Hispanic Whites. This phenomenon is referred to as the "Mexican paradox", and the explanation for this is still unclear. We used data from the third US National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III) to compare the rate of periodontal disease in Non-Hispanic Black, Non-Hispanic White and Mexican-American pregnant and non-pregnant women. We found that Mexican-American women have a lower rate of periodontal disease before and during pregnancy when compared to Non-Hispanic Blacks. Since periodontal disease has been associated with an increased risk of preterm birth and low birth weight, we hypothesize that the lower prevalence of periodontal disease before and during pregnancy among Mexican-American women may contribute to the "Mexican paradox".     

Buoyancy of African black and European white males

Twenty-six male swimmers (13 Blacks, 13 Whites) matched for age, weight, and stature were subjects in the comparison of anthropometric characteristics and horizontal and vertical buoyancies. Subjects were tested in a swimming pool in the horizontal position. The time necessary for the body to return to the vertical position defined horizontal buoyancy. Vertical buoyancy was the hydrostatic lift necessary to maintain the subject immersed to the nose. The results indicated similarities in arm span, trunk flexibility, and full inspiration and exhalation of Black and White subjects. However, there were differences in body fat distribution (P ≤ 0.05) and buoyancies (P ≤ 0.01), with Whites storing more fat and having better buoyancy than Blacks. Am. J. Hum. Biol. 9:87–92 © 1997 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Interpupillary distance in a normal black population

This report expands on a study by Pryor [Pryor HB. Objective measurement of interpupillary distance. Pediatrics 1969: 44: 973 977] that related normal values of inner canthal distance (ICD), outer canthal distance (OCD) and interpupillary distance (IPD) for Whites, Asians and Mexican Americans. To date, no similar values have been reported for Blacks. Utilizing a sample (n = 931: 485 males; 446 females) of black people (range, birth 24 years), OCD, ICD, and head circumference (HC) were measured and tabulated. We calculated mean IPD according to Pryor's formulation and report that the general mean OCD and ICD in our sample differed significantly from, and were consistently higher than, Pryor's reported measurements for White males and females at each age level (p < 0.001). However, ICD in our sample was significantly lower at birth in both sexes, appeared to increase at a more rapid rate relative to Whites during the first 3 months of life, and reached and maintained a higher value beyond the age of 3 months, with most age groups showing a significant difference in mean ICD measurements. At each age level, the mean IPD values in Whites and Blacks were significantly higher (p < 0.001). Based upon these findings, we suggest that interpupillary distance of Black children and adults be assessed according to the mean proportions for their race.     

Maternal factors in dizygotic twinning: evidence from interracial crosses

In the USA, Blacks have been shown to have a higher incidence of DZ twinning than Whites. We studied maternal and paternal race determinants of the rates of like-sex and unlike-sex twinning using US live-birth certificate data for 1973-78. After adjustment was made for father's race, Black mothers had a higher rate of unlike-sex twinning than White mothers (odds ratio, OR = 1.74, P less than 10(-8]. This maternal race effect persisted after further adjustments were made for maternal age, parity, education, and marital status and did not apply to the rates of like-sex twinning (OR = 1.06). On the other hand, after adjustment was made for mother's race, Black fathers did not have higher rates of unlike-sex (OR = 0.93) or like-sex (OR = 1.11) twinning than White fathers. The study shows that the high rate of DZ twinning in Blacks is associated with maternal race and not paternal race. The data further support the importance of maternal determinants of dizygotic twinning in humans.     

Black–white differences on the Strong Interest Inventory General Occupational Themes and Basic Interest Scales at ages 16 to 65

Black–white differences on the Strong Interest Inventory were examined for a heterogeneous sample of 756 Whites and 85 Blacks aged 16 to 65 years. Multivariate and univariate analyses of variance and covariance were conducted. Race, gender, and IQ were independent variables; the six Holland General Occupational Themes and the 23 Basic Interest Scales were dependent variables; and educational attainment was the covariate. All interactions were nonsignificant, but race was consistently a significant main effect. In general, Whites scored higher than Blacks on Realistic and Investigative themes and scales, and Blacks scored higher in the Social, Enterprising, and Conventional areas. These findings were viewed in the context of counselors' and psychologists' roles in interpreting interest pattern of Black individuals. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Clin Psychol 54: 19–33, 1998.     

The fluid and crystallized abilities of white,black, and hispanic adolescents and adults,both with and without an education covariate

Data from the standardization sample of the Kaufman Adolescent and Adult Intelligence Test (KAIT) were used to examine race/ethnic differences on the Horn-Cattell fluid and crystallized constructs. Samples included 768 individuals aged 11 to 24 years (575 White, 117 Black, 76 Hispanic) and 1,160 individuals aged 25 to 94 years (972 White, 124 Black, 64 Hispanic). Multivariate and univariate analyses were conducted, with and without an educational attainment covariate. Race/ethnic group was related significantly to performance on fluid and crystallized variables. Whites generally outscored Blacks and Hispanics on the diverse measures, namely, on tasks dependent on school learning (crystallized), and on those that reflect novel problem solving (fluid). These results maintained even with educational attainment covaried. Hispanics tended to perform better on fluid than on crystallized tests.     

Effects of ethnicity,gender, obesity,and age on central fat distribution: Comparison of dual x-ray absorptiometry measurements in white,black, and Puerto Rican adults

Population based studies relying primarily upon anthropometric surrogates of fat distribution have shown that central or upper-body adiposity is related to ethnicity, gender, age, and total body fatness. As an improvement over anthropometry, dual x-ray absorptiometry (DXA) provides more precise measurements of fat mass (FM) in the total body and trunk. DXA was performed on 510 apparently healthy White (81 females (f), 64 males (m)), Black (94 f, 79 m), and Puerto Rican (102 f, 100 m) adults aged 20–75 years in order to determine and compare the effects of race, gender, age, and total FM on trunk FM. Trunk FM was greater for Blacks and Puerto Ricans than Whites, irrespective of gender (P < 0.014). Puerto Rican males and females had a greater proportion of fat in the trunk (%TrFM) than Whites or Blacks (P < 0.001), and Whites and Blacks were similar with respect to %TrFM (P > 0.67). Females had less %TrFM than males in all three ethnic groups (all P < 0.001). Based on multiple regression analysis, ethnicity did not affect the relationship of trunk and total FM among males (P > 0.16), but the coefficient for total FM was larger for Puerto Rican compared to Black females (P = 0.043). Trunk FM increased with age in Whites and Puerto Ricans (P < 0.02), but not Blacks (P > 0.24). The effects of age did not differ by gender or ethnicity among Whites and Puerto Ricans (P > 0.10). Adjustment for total FM and age eliminated ethnic and gender differences in trunk FM (all P > 0.37). The results suggest that the high levels of central adiposity observed among Blacks and Hispanics relative to Whites reflect patterns of generalized obesity observed in the respective populations. Patterns of accumulation of truncal FM with increasing age and obesity may not be generalizable to all ethnic groups. Am. J. Hum. Biol. 10:361–369, 1998. © 1998 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

RACE,PERCEIVED DISCRIMINATION,AND EMOTION‐FOCUSED COPING

This study examined the associations among race, perceived discrimination, and emotion‐focused coping. Participants were 3,688 respondents (160 Blacks and 3,533 non‐Hispanic Whites) to the National Survey of Midlife Development in the United States. We tested our hypotheses with analyses of covariance and multiple regression, and we confirmed mediation with bias‐corrected bootstrap confidence intervals. All analyses controlled for age and gender; educational attainment and household income were included as covariates in additional analyses. Consistent with previous research, Blacks engaged in more emotion‐focused coping than did Whites. However, as predicted, perceived discrimination explained the association between race and emotion‐focused coping. Being Black compared with White predicted more perceived discrimination; in turn, perceived discrimination predicted more emotion‐focused coping. Perceived discrimination fully mediated the association between race and emotion‐focused coping. Findings demonstrate that relying on emotion‐focused coping is a function of facing daily discrimination rather than racial status.     

Assessing the body composition of 6–17‐year‐old black and white girls in field studies

The purpose of the study was to develop ethnic‐specific equations for fat‐free mass (FFM) from selected anthropometric dimensions and bioelectrical impedance measures of resistance (R) and reactance (X_c) for use in the NHLBI Growth and Heath Study. Using dual‐energy X‐ray absorptiometry measures of body composition as the dependent variable and field measures of body composition by anthropometry and bioelectrical impedance as the explanatory variables, ethnic‐specific prediction equations were developed on a sample of girls representing a wide range of ages and BMI. The equations were cross‐validated using (1) the Prediction of Sum of Squares (PRESS) statistic and (2) an independent sample of 20 girls of each race from a study conducted at the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD). Subjects were 65 White and 61 Black girls 6–17 years of age. The best race‐specific equations for FFM each explained 99% and 97% of the variance in the White and Black girls, respectively. Root mean square errors (RMSE) ranged from 1.14 to 1.95 kg. The equation for Black girls used Stature²/Resistance (R), weight, and reactance (X_c) as predictor variables; the equation for White girls used Stature²/R, weight, and triceps skinfold thickness. The results indicate that (1) equations to predict FFM in girls should be ethnic‐specific and that (2) accurate values for TBF and %BF can be calculated from the predicted FFM. Am. J. Hum. Biol. 13:249–254, 2001. © 2001 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Relationship of birth weight and length with growth in height and body diameters from 5 years of age to maturity

Birth weight and birth length were compared with several growth measures, including body height and weight, linear measures of limbs, body diameters, and head circumference, in 726 Melbourne schoolchildren of both sexes age 5–18 years. The analysis of relationships between three categories of birth length, weight, and growth measures were based on z-scores and performed by using analysis of variance and partial correlation. The data showed that birth length was correlated with body height and birth weight was correlated with head circumference; the relationships were weak and were less clear around the age corresponding to the peak height velocity in either sex. Further studies are needed to determine the common underlying mechanisms responsible for these associations. Am. J. Hum. Biol. 11:772–778, 1999. © 1999 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

MMPI-168 profiles of male narcotic addicts by ethnic group and city

MMPI-168 profiles were obtained on 225 male narcotic addicts who were attending methadone maintenance clinics in Baltimore and New York City during 1983 and 1984. Data were collected on Black and White (Anglo, other than Hispanic) addicts in Baltimore and on Black, Hispanic, and White addicts in New York City. In general, the profiles indicated high levels of psychopathology, with particularly high elevations on the F, D, PD, PT, and SC scales. Consistent across cities and in agreement with earlier findings, profiles of Whites indicated somewhat more maladjustment than those for Blacks, while the profiles of Hispanics displayed essentially the same levels of disturbance as those for Whites. Comparisons by city revealed greater deviance for New York City subjects, a finding more evident among Whites than among Blacks.     

Growth and motor performance of black and white children 6–10 years of age: A multivariate analysis

The relationships between anthropometry and physical performance were considered in 439 Black and 386 White children, 6 through 10 years of age. Anthropometric dimensions included weight, statute, sitting height, six skeletal breadths, three limb circumferences, and three skinfolds. Performance variables included four static strength and three motor tasks. Principal components analysis was used to reduce the anthropometric dimensions to four components for each age group (sexes combined) within race. Only two components had eigenvalues greater than 1 in all age and both racial groups. The first two components accounted for 81 to 87% of the variance in anthropometry in Black children and for 79 to 85% of the variance in White children. Path coefficients from sex directly to performance and the products of path coefficients from sex to the first or second principal component to performance were computed for each strength and motor task in each age and race group. With few exceptions, path coefficients from sex directly to performance were negative and suggested an effecct of sex on performance which is independent of anthropometric characteristics.     

Parental history of hypertension and cardiovascular response to stress in black and white men

White offspring of hypertensives typically exhibit an elevated cardiovascular response to stress. Studies of Black offspring of hypertensives have been fewer, with inconsistent results. This may be due, in part, to incomplete characterizations of hemodynamic responses. This study examines cardiovascular reactivity in Black and White offspring of hypertensives with a particular focus on vascular resistance responses. A total of 62 healthy normotensive men, 41 with a parental history of hypertension (PH+: 21 Blacks, 20 Whites), and 21 without parental hypertension (PH-: 7 Blacks, 14 Whites) engaged in a series of laboratory tasks. Both Black and White PH+ participants exhibited elevated diastolic blood pressure (DBP) responses, but to different patterns of stressor tasks. Familial differences in total peripheral resistance response were also obtained for Black and White participants in a comparison across all tasks, but were particularly evident in tasks when PH+ participants had elevated DBP responses. These results suggest that a parental history of hypertension is an important moderator of cardiovascular, and in particular peripheral vascular, responses to stress in Black and White individuals. This research was supported in part by National Institutes of Health Grants HL31533 and RR00046. We thank Doris Murrell, Antonia Vincent, Nancy Pettee, and Deborah Jansen for their technical assistance.     

The association between birth size and atopy in young North-European adults

BACKGROUND: There is evidence that atopic disorders may begin in intra-uterine life; however, studies of birth characteristics and atopy show conflicting results. METHODS: We wanted to investigate the association of birth weight and head circumference with serum total or specific IgE, allergic rhinitis or eczema while addressing the influence of demographic and geographical factors. In this historic prospective cohort study, data were collected from birth records for 1683 men and women born in 1947-1973, from six Nordic-Baltic populations participating in the European Community Respiratory Health Survey. Blood tests for the measurement of serum total and specific IgE were available for 1494 subjects. In multiple regression analyses, adjustments were made for birth length, gender, age, study centre, adult body mass index, level of education, parental and adult smoking. RESULTS There was no association of birth weight (n=1230) and head circumference (n=285) with serum total IgE, specific IgE antibodies, allergic rhinitis or eczema. There were neither significant interactions by gender or age, nor heterogeneity between the study centres in the analyses of birth weight and adult atopy. CONCLUSION: Birth size was not associated with atopy among adults in this large Nordic-Baltic population study.