Effects of a rape awareness program on college women: increasing bystander efficacy and willingness to intervene

An experimental study evaluated the efficacy of a sexual assault risk‐reduction program on 279 college women that focused on learning characteristics of male perpetrators and teaching bystander intervention techniques. After seeing The Women's Program, participants reported significantly greater bystander efficacy and significantly greater willingness to help than before seeing the program. Participants outperformed a control group. Rape myth acceptance also declined among program participants. Implications for rape awareness programming are discussed. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

A longitudinal examination of male college students' perpetration of sexual assault

Self-administered surveys were completed by 197 men in college at 2 time points, 1 year apart. Men who committed sexual assault at multiple time points (repeat assaulters) had the most extreme scores on measures of hostility toward women, past sexual experiences, drinking in sexual situations, and adolescent delinquency. Nonassaulters had the least extreme scores and men who committed sexual assault at only 1 time point had scores that tended to fall in between. Repeat assaulters also expressed significantly less remorse when they described their sexual assault at Time 1 than did past assaulters who committed sexual assault only at the initial time point. These findings demonstrate the importance of initiating prevention and treatment programs in early adolescence, before longstanding attitudes and behaviors tolerant of sexual assault are established.     

The evaluation of a sexual assault risk reduction program: a multisite investigation.

This article summarizes the results of the Ohio University Sexual Assault Risk Reduction Project, which is a program designed to reduce college women's risk for sexual assault. The program was evaluated at 2 separate universities with 762 women. Participants were randomly assigned either to the program or to the no-treatment comparison group, and they completed measures that assessed sexual victimization, dating behaviors, sexual communication, and rape empathy at the pretest and at the 2-month and 6-month follow-ups. At the 2-month follow-up, there were no differences between the groups on any of the outcome measures. However, those women who were moderately victimized during the 2-month follow-up were significantly less likely to be revictimized during the 6-month follow-up period if they participated in the program.     

The relationship of male self-report of rape supportive attitudes,sexual fantasy,social desirability and physiological arousal to sexually coercive stimuli

Studies have supported the finding that sexually coercive behavior exists between males and females on college campuses and that when women say “no” to sexual behavior, men do not believe them. This study utilized penile plethysmography to investigate male sexual arousal to rape myth scenarios in a college population. The scenarios portrayed a woman who said “no” to sexually coercive intercourse behavior by a male. Results indicated that a low level of social desirability, sexual fantasies involving group sexual activity, as well as hurting and being hurt by a partner were associated with greater levels of physiological responding to coercive stimuli. Supportive attitudes about rape showed no relationship with physiological responding, yet did correlate with the sexual fantasy of being hurt by a partner, which was itself related to increased sexual arousal to sexually coercive audio stimuli. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Clin Psychol 53: 935–942, 1997     

Forced sexual intercourse and associated health-risk behaviors among female college students in the United States

This study analyzed data from the 1995 National College Health Risk Behavior Survey (NCHRBS) to assess the prevalence of lifetime rape among female college students and to examine the association between rape and health-risk behaviors. The NCHRBS used a mail questionnaire to assess health-risk behaviors among a nationally representative sample of undergraduate students. Twenty percent of female students reported ever having been forced to have sexual intercourse, most often during adolescence. When analyses controlled for demographic characteristics, female students who had ever been raped were significantly more likely than those who had not to report a wide range of health-risk behaviors. These results highlight a need to improve rape prevention and treatment programs for female adolescents.     

A System Justification View of Sexual Violence: Legitimizing Gender Inequality and Reduced Moral Outrage Are Connected to Greater Rape Myth Acceptance

Rape is a pervasive social problem that causes serious physical and psychological repercussions. Rape victims’ recovery is often complicated by the public's failure to believe the victim and restore justice. This study applied system justification theory to examine whether the justification of gender inequality is related to moral outrage (an emotional precursor to corrective action) and rape myth acceptance; we also examined whether rape myth acceptance is associated with moral outrage at injustice. Results showed that gender-specific system justification correlated with less moral outrage at human suffering as well as greater rape myth acceptance. The relationships between these variables were similar for men and for women, a finding that suggests that rape myths are system justifying for women. When we controlled for gender-specific system justification, rape myth acceptance correlated with less moral outrage. Results are discussed in the context of how legitimizing ideologies reduce moral outrage at injustice and perpetuate a system of sexual violence.     

A Web-Based Sexual Violence Bystander Intervention for Male College Students: Randomized Controlled Trial

Background

Bystander intervention approaches offer promise for reducing rates of sexual violence on college campuses. Most interventions are in-person small-group formats, which limit their reach and reduce their overall public health impact.

Objective

This study evaluated the efficacy of RealConsent, a Web-based bystander approach to sexual violence prevention, in enhancing prosocial intervening behaviors and preventing sexual violence perpetration.

Methods

A random probability sample of 743 male undergraduate students (aged 18 to 24 years) attending a large, urban university located in the southeastern United States was recruited online and randomized to either RealConsent (n=376) or a Web-based general health promotion program (n=367). Participants were surveyed online at baseline, postintervention, and 6-months postintervention. RealConsent was delivered via a password-protected Web portal that contained six 30-minute media-based and interactive modules covering knowledge of informed consent, communication skills regarding sex, the role of alcohol and male socialization in sexual violence, empathy for rape victims, and bystander education. Primary outcomes were self-reported prosocial intervening behaviors and sexual violence perpetration. Secondary outcomes were theoretical mediators (eg, knowledge, attitudes).

Results

At 6-month follow-up RealConsent participants intervened more often (P=.04) and engaged in less sexual violence perpetration (P=.04) compared to controls. In addition, RealConsent participants reported greater legal knowledge of sexual assault (P<.001), greater knowledge of effective consent (P<.001), less rape myths (P<.001), greater empathy for rape victims (P<.001), less negative date rape attitudes (P<.001), less hostility toward women (P=.01), greater intentions to intervene (P=.04), less hyper-gender ideology (P<.001), less positive outcome expectancies for nonconsensual sex (P=.03), more positive outcome expectancies for intervening (P<.001), and less comfort with other men’s inappropriate behaviors (P<.001).

Conclusions

Our results support the efficacy of RealConsent. Due to its Web-based format, RealConsent has potential for broad-based dissemination thereby increasing its overall public health impact on sexual violence.

Trial Registration

Clinicaltrials.gov: {"type":"clinical-trial","attrs":{"text":"NCT01903876","term_id":"NCT01903876"}}NCT01903876; http://clinicaltrials.gov/show/{"type":"clinical-trial","attrs":{"text":"NCT01903876","term_id":"NCT01903876"}}NCT01903876 (Archived by WebCite at http://www.webcitation.org/6S1PXxWKt).     

Sexual revictimization prevention: an outcome evaluation

This investigation tested a program to reduce women's risk for sexual revictimization. Participants were 66 women with histories of sexual victimization as adolescents or adults who were randomly assigned to a preventive intervention group or a no-treatment control group. They completed initial measures assessing history of sexual assault, self-efficacy, and psychological functioning, returning approximately 2 months later for follow-up assessment using the same measures. Results suggest that the prevention program may be effective in reducing the incidence of sexual assault revictimization in this population. In addition, participants in the intervention group displayed significant improvement in psychological adjustment and self-reported self-efficacy.     

Challenges in conducting research on sexual violence and HIV and approaches to overcome them

Studies have implicated sexual violence as a strong correlate of HIV acquisition in women. Characterizing how such violence affects the female immune system may provide insight into the biological mechanisms of HIV transmission and ultimately improve global HIV prevention strategies. Little research has been carried out in this domain, and the obstacles to investigation can be daunting. Here, we describe methodological challenges encountered and solutions explored while implementing a study of dysregulation of immune biomarkers potentially indicative of increased HIV susceptibility in women following sexual assault. Challenges included accessing sexual assault survivors and defining sexual assault, promoting study participant well‐being during research engagement, reducing selection and information bias, collecting and processing biological samples, and adjusting for confounders such as reproductive tract infections and emotional and physical abuse. We found that many survivors of sexual assault welcomed the attention from study staff and felt empowered by the opportunity to help other women at risk for violence. Well‐trained research staff and well‐articulated community and medical partnerships were key methods to overcoming challenges while promoting the safety and welfare of vulnerable study participants.     

“NOBODY DESERVES THIS”: ADOLESCENT SEXUAL ASSAULT VICTIMS’ PERCEPTIONS OF DISBELIEF AND VICTIM BLAME FROM POLICE

Prior research reveals that many police engage in victim blaming, skeptical reactions to adult sexual assault survivors. However, little is known about adolescent survivors’ experiences with police. To address this gap, qualitative interviews were conducted with 20 adolescent rape survivors to understand adolescents’ perceptions of their interactions with the police (specifically the messages the officers conveyed about the assault and the victims themselves). Positive perceptions occurred when the adolescents perceived police behavior as indications of believing their story, validating their decision to report, and refraining from judgment of their behavior. On the other hand, negative perceptions were associated with behaviors that were viewed as indications of skepticism, blame, or judgment. Specific behaviors that were associated with each of these themes are discussed. Interactions with the police influenced survivors’ emotional well‐being and their hope for their case's success. Implications for improving interactions between police and adolescent sexual assault victims are discussed.     

Group‐Based Compassion‐Focused Therapy as an Adjunct to Outpatient Treatment for Eating Disorders: A Pilot Randomized Controlled Trial

The current study sought to assess the acceptability and feasibility of a compassion‐focused therapy (CFT) group as an adjunct to evidence‐based outpatient treatment for eating disorders, and to examine its preliminary efficacy relative to treatment as usual (TAU). Twenty‐two outpatients with various types of eating disorders were randomly assigned to 12 weeks of TAU (n = 11) or TAU plus weekly CFT groups adapted for an eating disorder population (CFT + TAU; n = 11). Participants in both conditions completed measures of self‐compassion, fears of compassion, shame and eating disorder pathology at baseline, week 4, week 8 and week 12. Additionally, participants receiving the CFT group completed measures assessing acceptability and feasibility of the group. Results indicated that the CFT group demonstrated strong acceptability; attendance was high and the group retained over 80% of participants. Participants rated the group positively and indicated they would be very likely to recommend it to peers with similar symptoms. Intention‐to‐treat analyses revealed that compared to the TAU condition, the CFT + TAU condition yielded greater improvements in self‐compassion, fears of self‐compassion, fears of receiving compassion, shame and eating disorder pathology over the 12 weeks. Results suggest that group‐based CFT, offered in conjunction with evidence‐based outpatient TAU for eating disorders, may be an acceptable, feasible and efficacious intervention. Furthermore, eating disorder patients appear to see benefit in, and observe gains from, working on the CFT goals of overcoming fears of compassion, developing more self‐compassion and accessing more compassion from others. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Prospective evaluation of a cognitive vulnerability‐stress model for depression: the interaction of schema self‐structures and negative life events

This study tested the diathesis‐stress component of Beck's (1967) cognitive theory of depression. Initially, participants completed measures assessing cognitive organization of the self‐schema and depressive symptoms. One year later, participants completed measures assessing cognitive organization of the self‐schema, depressive symptoms, and negative life events. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses, controlling for initial depression, indicated that more tightly interconnected negative content was associated with greater elevations in depressive symptoms following the occurrence of life events. More diffusely interconnected positive content for interpersonal self‐referent information also interacted with life events to predict depressive symptoms. Cognitive organization dimensions showed moderate to high stability across the follow‐up, suggesting that they may be trait‐like vulnerability factors. Implications for the cognitive vulnerability‐stress model of depression are discussed. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Clin Psychol 66:1–17, 2010.     

The theory of planned behaviour and binge drinking: Assessing the moderating role of past behaviour within the theory of planned behaviour

A sample of 398 undergraduate students completed questionnaires assessing the main constructs of the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) in relation to binge drinking, as well as past binge drinking behaviour. Of these, 273 were followed up at 1 week. Regression analyses revealed attitude, self‐efficacy, and perceived control (negative relationship) to be predictive of binge drinking intentions. Intention and self‐efficacy were, in turn, predictive of binge drinking at 1‐week follow‐up. Past behaviour was found to explain additional variance in intention and behaviour. In addition, past behaviour was found to moderate the attitude–intention and intention–behaviour relationships, such that weaker relationships were observed with increasing frequency of past behaviour. The results are discussed in relation to the need to develop and test alternative measures of habit. The implications of the findings for interventions to encourage more appropriate drinking behaviour are outlined.     

Bystander education: Bringing a broader community perspective to sexual violence prevention

Recent research documents the problem of sexual violence across communities, often finding its causes to be embedded in community and cultural norms, thus demonstrating the need for community‐focused solutions. In this article we synthesize research from community psychology on community change and prevention with more individually focused studies of sexual violence prevention programs and bystander behavior in emergency and crime situations. The purpose of bringing together this research is to outline a new area of focus for sexual violence prevention: the mobilization of prosocial behavior on the part of potential bystanders. This approach has utility for increasing community receptivity to prevention messages, by decreasing resistance to them, and for increasing the likelihood of community members taking an active role in prevention and intervention. The specific case of sexual violence prevention on college campus communities illustrates this approach. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Comm Psychol 32: 61–79, 2004.     

What is an empowerment approach to working with sexual assault survivors?

This exploratory study sought to better understand what constitutes the empowerment approach used by rape crisis advocates working with sexual assault survivors. A grounded theory, qualitative, semistructured interview study was conducted of rape victim advocates (N=25) working in rape crisis centers in a large metropolitan area. Several characteristics were described as reflecting an empowerment orientation or approach to work with survivors, some of which were specifically described as a “feminist” empowerment approach. Implications for research and practice are drawn. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

“They're hoping we can stop it”: Student leadership in sexual violence intervention and response at West Point

This study identified risks and opportunities in peer leadership approaches to sexual violence intervention and response. Constructivist grounded theory was used to analyze semistructured interviews with 24 cadets, including a bystander intervention scenario. With regard to bystander intervention, cadets adhered to gendered assumptions that blocked action, drew upon community values to plan intervention, and thus prepared in ways that reinforced gender biases. With regard to incident response, cadets struggled with cynicism regarding their role in addressing sexual assault, but wanted incidents to be reported despite victim blaming and lack of supports, and responded from their feelings instead of skillfully acting on their values. This study explicates opportunities for leveraging community values in service of intervention and response while illustrating risks of rape myths and gender biases. Addressing inaccurate assumptions and reinforcing positive values could better prepare cadets and other undergraduate students for leadership.     

The development of a brief acceptance and mindfulness-based program aimed at reducing sexual revictimization among college women with a history of childhood sexual abuse

Women with a history of childhood sexual assault (CSA) are more likely to be revictimized; however, most existing programs aimed at reducing sexual victimization do not expressly address the issue of revictimization. The present study examined the efficacy of a brief mindfulness-based program in reducing rates of sexual assault and revictimization in college women over the course of an academic semester. Although the results were not statistically significant, a large-magnitude effect was noted, whereby women with a history of CSA who participated in the program were less likely to be sexually assaulted and raped at 2-month follow-up.