削薄腓浅动脉穿支皮瓣游离移植修复前足创面

目的 探讨削薄腓浅动脉穿支皮瓣游离移植修复前足创面的临床效果. 方法 2010年1月至2012年6月,应用削薄腓浅动脉穿支皮瓣游离移植修复前足创面6例,其中足背创面4例,足趾创面2例;缺损面积为3.0cm×5.0cm～5.5cm×8.0cm;4例供区直接缝合,2例供区创面植皮修复. 结果 本组6例皮瓣全部成活,未出现血管危象.随访3 ～12个月,原缺损部位外形及功能恢复满意,供区外形功能无明显影响. 结论 削薄腓浅动脉穿支皮瓣血管解剖恒定,皮瓣质地好,厚薄适中,供区破坏小,是游离移植修复前足创面的新选择,值得在临床上推广应用.     

腓动脉穿支蒂腓肠神经营养血管长轴皮瓣的应用解剖及其临床应用

目的 报道吻合血管的腓动脉穿支蒂腓肠神经营养血管长轴皮瓣的应用解剖及其临床应用效果.方法 10侧下肢标本采用有色乳胶经腘动脉灌注,解剖观测腓动脉穿支血管的分布、走行及管径,寻找适合用于吻合血管的穿支血管.2007年4月至2010年1月,采用吻合血管的腓动脉穿支蒂腓神经营养血管长轴皮瓣游离移植修复前臂及手部大面积软组织缺损6例.缺损范围15 cm × 6 cm～45cm×10 cm.皮瓣面积为16 cm×8 cm～30 cm×10 cm,血管蒂长4～6 cm.结果 腓动脉沿途平均发出5.3支穿支血管,在腓骨中下1/3交界处存在恒定的适合用于吻合血管的穿支血管,血管外径为(1.21±0.13)mm,血管蒂长(4.6±0.8)cm.6例皮瓣完全存活,随访3～12个月,皮瓣质地优良,外形与功能恢复满意.结论 以腓动脉穿支为蒂的腓肠神经营养血管长轴皮瓣切取范围大,穿支血管蒂长,管径适中,血供可靠,对小腿功能影响小,是临床修复前臂及手部大面积软组织缺损的良好选择.     

游离小腿外侧腓动脉穿支皮瓣修复手前臂及足部皮肤缺损

目的介绍游离小腿外侧腓动脉穿支皮瓣修复手前臂及足部皮肤缺损的临床效果。方法以腓动脉应用解剖为基础,术前超声多普勒定位血管蒂,并以此为中心设计皮瓣。皮瓣面积：5cm×9cm-10cm×20cm。2009年10月-2012年5月,应用游离小腿外侧腓动脉穿支皮瓣修复手前臂及足部皮肤缺损17例。结果17例皮瓣及供区植皮全部成活,受区外形及功能满意,小腿功能无影响。结论游离小腿外侧腓动脉穿支皮瓣是修复手前臂及足部皮肤缺损的理想方法。     

腓浅动脉穿支皮瓣游离移植修复手足部软组织缺损

目的 探讨应用腓浅动脉穿支皮瓣游离移植修复手足部软组织缺损的临床效果.方法 2007年6月-2009年6月,应用腓浅动脉穿支皮瓣游离移植修复手、足软组织缺损8例;其中足背缺损2例,(躅)趾背侧缺损1例,手背缺损2例,手指缺损3例;缺损面积为3.0 cm× 4.5 cm～ 5.0 cm×11.0 cm,5例供区直接缝合,3例供区小面积植皮.结果 本组8例穿支皮瓣全部成活.随访3～ 12个月,原缺损部位外形及功能恢复满意,供区外形功能无明显影响.结论 应用腓浅动脉穿支皮瓣游离移植修复手足软组织缺损,临床效果满意,是一种较好的修复方法.     

腓浅动脉单一穿支微型皮瓣游离移植修复手足部皮肤缺损

目的 探讨腓浅动脉单一穿支微型皮瓣的临床疗效,并对手足部较小面积的皮肤软组织缺损进行定点修复. 方法 自2009年11月至2011年1月,共对8例(左足1例,右足1例,左手3例,右手3例)皮肤软组织缺损面积为(1.3 cm×5.0 cm～2.5 cm×6.0 cm)的患者进行腓浅动脉单一穿支微型皮瓣游离移植手术;依据术前查阅相关解剖文献,在小腿外侧中部,以腓骨小头与外踝连线为轴线,该轴线中点为腓浅动脉穿支部位,依据皮肤缺损区大小及形状设计皮瓣,并对皮瓣的设计、切取、皮瓣与受区的血管吻合、成活特点及治疗效果进行分析. 结果 8例手足部皮肤软组织缺损应用面积为1.5 cm× 5.2 cm～2.8 cm×6.2 cm的腓浅动脉单一穿支微型皮瓣进行修复后均成活,外形、质地均满意,术后功能恢复效果良好;1例术后出现水疱、暗紫、脱痂后成活;1例术后皮瓣存活顺利,但出现指骨骨髓炎,经治疗愈合. 结论 腓浅动脉单一穿支微型皮瓣游离移植可对手足部较小的皮肤软组织缺损进行精确的定点修复,临床效果满意.     

游离腓肠内侧动脉穿支皮瓣修复手足皮肤软组织缺损

目的 探讨以腓肠内侧动脉穿支血管为蒂的穿支皮瓣游离移植修复手足深部组织外露创面的临床疗效. 方法 对两具新鲜尸体行全身动脉造影,并对小腿部动脉进行二维显影和三维重建.2007年4月至2010年12月,我科应用腓肠内侧动脉穿支皮瓣游离移植修复手、足部皮肤缺损34例.其中,手部25例,足部9例;感染创面12例,清洁创面22例,皮肤缺损面积6 cm×4 cm～13 cm×8cm,皮瓣切取面积为7cm×5cm～ 14cm×9cm.23例皮瓣由1条穿支血管营养,余11例由2条穿支营养;15例在切取皮瓣时解剖出1条浅静脉与受区浅静脉吻合,9例皮瓣通过缝合皮神经重建感觉.结果 将小腿后区分为5个血管区,并获得腓肠动脉及其分支的三维重建图像.临床应用29例皮瓣均顺利成活,5例皮瓣出现水泡,经拆线处理最终成活.随访6～21个月,皮瓣色泽与受区相似,无明显臃肿,9例缝合皮神经的手背部皮瓣感觉恢复为S2～S3. 结论 腓肠内侧动脉穿支皮瓣的血管解剖较恒定,皮瓣薄且柔软,不损伤小腿主要血管及腓肠肌,是手、足刨面修复的良好选择.     

吻合血管复合腓骨穿支皮瓣的应用解剖及临床应用

目的 报道吻合血管的复合腓骨穿支皮瓣的应用解剖及修复复合组织缺损的临床效果.方法 24侧下肢标本采用有色乳胶从腘动脉灌注,解剖观测腓动脉及其穿支血管的分布、蒂长、管径等.临床设计切取小腿外侧区的腓动脉穿支皮瓣与游离腓骨形成复合腓骨穿支皮瓣移植修复肢体复合组织缺损共16例,皮瓣面积为6 cm×4cm～16cm×8 cm,骨缺损长度6～16 cm,移植腓骨长度8～20 cm.结果 腓动脉沿途平均发出5.3支穿支,其中40.6%为肌皮穿支、59.4%为隔皮穿支,分布在腓骨后缘3.1 cm范围内.平均直径1.1 mm,穿支间距4～8 cm,外踝后上方15～25 cm、4～7 cm范围内均可发现穿支血管.移植的16例复合腓骨穿支皮瓣全部成活,随访10～36个月,平均22.3个月,移植的腓骨在术后3～5个月愈合,随时间延长及患者负重移植骨逐渐增粗.受区外形与肢体功能恢复满意.结论 腓动脉穿支数目及位置相对恒定,根据腓动脉皮穿支的发出位置,可设计复合腓骨穿支皮瓣,临床应用证明是修复肢体长段骨缺损合并皮肤软组织缺损的良好选择.     

游离股后侧穿支动脉皮瓣的解剖学研究及临床应用

目的 通过研究股后侧区的穿支动脉解剖特点和分布规律,设计切取以该区域穿支血管为蒂的游离皮瓣. 方法 利用新鲜尸体8具乳胶加铅灌注标本对股后侧区域内血管解剖结构尤其是穿支血管走行及分布进行研究,筛选口径、长度及走行适合做吻合血管蒂的穿支.临床上实际应用7例,均为穿支游离皮瓣,皮瓣大小:3 cm×8 cm～8 cm×16 cm,第一穿动脉皮瓣3例,第二穿动脉皮瓣2例,第三穿动脉皮瓣1例,第一穿动脉上无名穿支皮瓣1例. 结果 解剖研究发现,该区域适合做游离皮瓣的穿支有4～5条,平均外径0.4～2.8 mm;平均长度2.2 ～9.0 cm.7例穿支皮瓣均成活,随访5～11个月,穿支皮瓣修复创面后皮肤弹性好,皮瓣薄,外形美观. 结论 股后侧区的穿动脉分布较多、口径长度适宜,以该区域设计切取穿支血管游离皮瓣部位隐蔽、可直接缝合供区,临床应用效果满意.     

吻合腓肠内侧血管穿支皮瓣的应用解剖和临床应用

目的 报道腓肠内侧血管穿支皮瓣的解剖学研究与游离移植的临床效果.方法 用明胶-氧化铅液灌注12侧标本的胭动脉,观测腓肠内侧血管及其穿支的分支、蒂长、管径等;取下标本皮肤软组织拍摄X线片,利用Photoshop与Scion Image分析穿支分布的趋向性和供血面积.临床上吻合腓肠内侧血管穿支皮瓣修复5例手部软组织缺损,皮瓣面积为7 cm×4 cm～12 cm×8 cm. 结果 所有标本的腓肠内侧血管至少存在1支穿支,平均2.1支;位于距横纹9～18 cm、距后中线1～5 cm的范围内;其深筋膜处的外径为(1.03±0.22)mm;穿支供血的总面积为(107.5±23.9)cm2,单穿支的供血面积为(58.3±17.0)cm2.5例移植皮瓣全部成活,随访6～12个月,手部修复后外形与功能恢复满意.结论 明胶-氧化铅液灌注造影是皮瓣血管解剖学研究的可靠方法;腓肠内侧血管恒定存在的穿支,可作为腓肠内侧血管穿支皮瓣的血供来源;该皮瓣外形美观,是修复手部中、小面积皮肤软组织缺损的良好选择.     

超薄型胫后动脉穿支皮瓣的解剖学观察与临床应用

目的 探讨游离超薄型胫后动脉穿支皮瓣修复手部皮肤软组织缺损的可行性与临床效果.方法 用红色乳胶经股动脉灌注的6侧成人下肢标本,观测胫后动脉在小腿内侧的皮穿支数目、分布、分支、外径等指标.结合解剖学观察结果设计皮瓣,在切取穿支皮瓣后修剪掉多余的脂肪,保留皮瓣的营养血管系统,用来修复手背、腕背等创面.临床应用11例,皮瓣面积最大10 cm×14 cm,最小2 cm×5 cm.结果 在6侧标本中,观测到胫后动脉的皮肤穿支43条,穿深筋膜平面时外径≥0.5 mm者有29条,平均每侧4.8条.穿支血管起始点的平均外径为(1.8±0.5) mm,长度(44±15) mm,在小腿近端第2段、第5段内出现穿支各6条,口径较粗,可以提供吻合.所有皮瓣均完全成活,其中7例随访3 ～12个月,皮瓣质地柔软,外形不臃肿,供区无并发症,手部功能、外形均满意.结论 超薄型胫后动脉穿支皮瓣血供可靠、修复创面后外形美观,是一种修复手背部中、小面积软组织缺损的较好方法.     

Vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction during major abdominal surgery

Background : We investigated the vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction (MT) with hypotension due to prostacyclin (PGI₂) release in patients undergoing abdominal surgery with a combined general and epidural anesthesia. Methods : In a prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled study we administered 400 mg ibuprofen (i.v.) in 42 patients scheduled for abdominal surgery. General anesthesia was combined with epidural anesthesia (T4-L1). Before as well as 5, 15, 30, 45, and 90 min after MT we recorded plasma osmolality, hemodynamics and measured 6-keto-PGFlα (stabile metabolite of PGI₂), TXB₂ (stabile metabolite of thromboxane A₂) active renin, and arginine vasopressin (AVP) plasma concentrations by radioimmunoassay. Catecholamine levels were assessed by high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) with electrochemical detection. Results : Following MT, arterial hypotension occurred along with a substantial PGI₂ release. This was completely abolished by ibuprofen administration. Although plasma levels of 6-keto-PGF_1α (1133 (708) vs. 60 (3) ng/L, median (median absolute deviation), P=0.0001, placebo vs. ibuprofen) remained significantly elevated, blood pressure was restored within 30 min after MT in the placebo group. At the same point in time plasma concentrations of TXB² (164 (87) vs. 58 (1) ng/L, P=0.0001), epinephrine (46 (33) vs. 14 (6) ng/L, P=0.001), AVP (41 ± (18) vs. 12 (7) ng/L, P=0.0004), and active renin (27 (12) vs. 12 (4) ng/L, P = 0.001) were significantly higher in placebo-treated patients. Conclusion : Under combined general and epidural anesthesia arterial hypotension following MT due to endogenous PGI₂ release is associated with enhanced release of AVP, active renin, epinephrine and thromboxane A₂, presumably contributing to hemodynamic stability within 30 min after MT.     

A Teaspoon Pump for Pumping Blood with High Hydraulic Efficiency and Low Hemolysis Potential

Abstract: Virtually all blood pumps contain some kind of rubbing, sliding, closely moving machinery surfaces that are exposed to the blood being pumped. These valves, internal bearings, magnetic bearing position sensors, and shaft seals cause most of the problems with blood pumps. The original teaspoon pump design prevented the rubbing, sliding machinery surfaces from contacting the blood. However, the hydraulic efficiency was low because the blood was able to "slip around" the rotating impeller so that the blood itself never rotated fast enough to develop adequate pressure. An improved teaspoon blood pump has been designed and tested and has shown acceptable hydraulic performance and low hemolysis potential. The new pump uses a nonrotating "swinging" hose as the pump impeller. The fluid enters the pump through the center of the swinging hose; therefore, there can be no fluid slip between the revolving blood and the revolving impeller. The new pump uses an impeller that is comparable to a flexible garden hose. If the free end of the hose were swung around in a circle like half of a jump rope, the fluid inside the hose would rotate and develop pressure even though the hose impeller itself did not "rotate"; therefore, no rotating shaft seal or internal bearings are required.     

A comparison of the inhibitory effects of four volatile anaesthetics on the metabolism of chlorzoxazone, a substrate for CYP2E1, in rabbits

Background: Halothane inhibits in vitro and in vivo activity of cytochrome P-450 (CYP) 2E1. There are several fluorinated volatile anaesthetics besides halothane, and most of them are defluorinated by CYP2E1. It is unclear whether other fluorinated anaesthetics inhibit the in vivo activity of CYP2E1.
Methods: We compared the inhibitory effects of therapeutic concentrations of four inhalational anaesthetics, halothane, enflurane, isoflurane, and sevoflurane, on chlorzoxazone metabolism in rabbits receiving artificial ventilation.
Results: All four inhalational anaesthetics decreased arterial blood pressure and increased plasma chlorzoxazone concentration. However, no significant differences in the plasma chlorzoxazone concentration were found between the four anaesthetics. The estimated chlorzoxazone clearance increased after beginning inhalation with all four agents, but no significant difference in clearance was noted between agents.
Conclusions: At therapeutic concentrations, the in vivo inhibitory effect on chlorzoxazone metabolism was similar for all four inhalational anaesthetics examined, even though their chemical characteristics and extent of hepatic metabolism differ considerably.     

Microspheres Based Detoxification System: A New Method in Convective Blood Purification

Abstract: A variety of protein-bound or hydrophobic substances, accumulating as a result of pathologic conditions such as exogenous or endogenous intoxications, are removed poorly by conventional detoxification methods because of low accessibility (hemodialysis), insufficient adsorption capabilities (hemosorption), low efficiency (peritoneal dialysis), or economic limitations (high-volume plasmapheresis). Combining advantages of existing methods with microspheric technology, a module-based system was designed. Major operating parameters of the latter can be modified to allow for adjustment to individual clinical situations. An extracorporeal blood circuit including a plasmafilter is combined with a secondary high-velocity plasma circuit driven by a centrifugal pump. Different microspheric adsorbers can be combined in one circuit or applied in sequence. Thus, a prolonged treatment can be tailored using specially designed selective adsorber materials. Comparing this system with existing methods (high-flux hemodialysis, molecular adsorbent recycling system), results from our in vitro studies and animal experiments demonstrate the superior efficiency of substance removal.     

Tissue perfusion in relation to cardiac output during continuous positive-pressure ventilation and administration of propranolol or verapamil

Background : Our objective was to determine whether administration of propranolol or verapamil modifies the hemodynamic adaptation to continuous positive-pressure ventilation (CPPV), in particular the regional distribution of cardiac output (CO).
Methods : General hemodynamics and regional blood flows assessed by microsphere technique (15 (μm) were recorded in 16 anesthetized pigs during spontaneous breathing (SB) and CPPV with 8 cm H₂O end-expiratory pressure (CPPV8) before and after intravenous administration of propranolol (0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.15 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8) or verapamil (0.1 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8).
Results : CPPV8 depressed CO by 25% without shifts in its relative distribution with the exception of a noteworthy increase in adrenal perfusion. Propranolol increased arterial blood pressure, and due to a fall in heart rate, CO dropped by 25%. The kidneys and, to a lesser extent, the splanchic region and central nervous system received increased fractions of the remaining CO at the expense of skeletal muscle flow. Similar patterns were seen during SB and CPPV8 such that the combination of propranolol and CPPV8 depressed CO by 50%. The circulatory effects of verapamil were less evident but myocardial perfusion tended to increase.
Conclusions : The combination of propranolol or verapamil with CPPV does not result in any specific hemodynamic interaction in anesthetized pigs, except that the combined effect of propranolol and CPPV may severely reduce CO.     

Bariatric Surgery in Some "Central and East-European (former Eastern bloc)"Countries - Current Status and Prediction for the Next Millennium

Background: Obesity is increasing globallly, including in the formerly "Eastern Bloc" countries. Methods: A survey was made of obesity and bariatric surgery. Results: In the 8 East and Central European countries studied, with total population 300 million, roughly 43% of the population was overweight (BMI 25-30), 23% obese (BMI > 30), with about 15 million people morbidly obese (BMI > 40). From 0-10 morbidly obese individuals/100,000/year undergo bariatric surgery. Conclusion: Most countries were found to provide inadequate treatment for obesity.The majority of the morbidly obese are not treated effectively. However, health-care awareness of obesity and bariatric surgeons are slowly increasing.     

Volatile anaesthetics reduce adhesion of blood platelets under low-flow conditions in the coronary system of isolated guinea pig hearts

Background : Inhibitory effects of volatile anaesthetics on platelet aggregation have been demonstrated in several studies. However, the influence of volatile anaesthetics on intracoronary platelet adhesion has not been elucidated so far.
Methods : Isolated hearts of guinea pigs were perfused with buffer in the absence or presence of volatile anaesthetics (0.5 and 1 MAC) at constant coronary flow rates of 5 ml/min for 25 min, then 1 ml/min for 30 min and again 5 ml/min for 10 min. Before, during and after low-flow perfusion, a bolus of human platelets was applied into the coronary system. To simulate thrombogenic conditions, 0.3 U/ml human thrombin was infused during low-flow perfusion and reperfusion. The number of platelets sequestered to the endothelium was calculated from the difference between coronary in- and output of platelets. The myocardial production of lactate and consumption of pyruvate and coronary perfusion pressure were also determined.
Results : At a flow rate of 5 ml/min only about 3% of the applied platelets did not emerge from the coronary system, in any group. In contrast, 13.1±1.2% (mean±SEM) of infused platelets became adherent in low-flow perfusion in the control group without anaesthetic. The adherence was reduced with each 1 MAC isoflurane (to 6.2±1.2%), sevoflurane (to 4.4±0.9%) or halothane (to 3.2±1.5%) (each P <0.05 vs. control). Volatile anaesthetic, 0.5 MAC, did not inhibit platelet adhesion to a statistically significant extent in any case. Perfusion pressure and metabolic parameters were not statistically different between the control and the hearts exposed to anaesthetics.
Conclusion : Volatile anaesthetics in a concentration of 1 MAC can reduce the adhesion of platelets in the coronary system under reduced flow conditions. This action does not arise from vasodilation or inhibition of ischaemic stress.     

Synergistic interaction between the effects of propofol and midazolam with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity in rabbits

Background: It has been shown that the depressive effects of both propofol and midazolam on consciousness are synergistic with opioids, but the nature of their interactions on other physiological systems, e. g. respiration, has not been fully investigated. The present study examined the effect of propofol and midazolam alone and in combination with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity (PNA) and whether such interactions are additive or synergistic. Methods: PNA was recorded in 27 anaesthetised and artificially ventilated rabbits. In three groups, propofol, fentanyl and midazolam were administered intravenously in incremental doses to construct dose-response curves for the depressant effects of each one on PNA. In another two groups, the effect of pretreatment with either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. on the effects of propofol and fentanyl respectively on PNA were studied. Results: Propofol and fentanyl caused a dose-dependent depression of PNA with complete abolition at the highest total doses of 16 mg · kg^?1 i. v. and 32 μg · kg^?1 i. v., respectively. In contrast, midazolam in incremental doses to a total of 0.8 mg · kg^?1 reduced mean PNA by 63%, but approximately 12% of PNA remained at a total dose as high as 6.4 mg · kg^?1. The mean ED₅₀s, calculated from dose-response curves, were 5.4 mg · kg^?1, 3.9 μg · kg^?1 and 0.4 mg · kg^?1 for propofol, fentanyl and midazolam, respectively. Initial doses of either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. acted synergistically with subsequent doses of either propofol or fentanyl to abolish PNA at total doses of 8 mg · kg^?1 and 8 μg · kg^?1, respectively. Conclusion: Fentanyl has a synergistic interaction with both propofol and midazolam on PNA and hence potentially on respiration.     

Influence of dopexamine hydrochloride on haemodynamics and regulators of circulation in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery

Background: Catecholaminergic support is often used to improve haemodynamics in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery. Dopexamine is a synthetic vasoactive catecholamine with beneficial microcirculatory properties. Methods: The influence of perioperative administration of dopexamine on cardiorespiratory data and important regulators of macro- and microcirculation were studied in 30 patients undergoing Whipple pancreaticduodenectomy. The patients received randomized and blinded either 2 μg · kg^?1 · min^?1 of dopexamine (n=15) or placebo (n=15, control group). The infusion was started after induction of anaesthesia and continued until the morning of the first postoperative day. Endothelin-1 (ET-1), vasopressin, atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), and catecholamine plasma levels were measured from arterial blood samples. Measurements were carried out after induction of anaesthesia, 2 h after onset of surgery, at the end of surgery, 2 h after surgery, and on the morning of the first postoperative day. Results: Cardiac index (CI) increased significantly in the dopexamine group (from 2.61±0.41 to 4.57±0.78 1 · min^?1 · m^?2) and remained elevated until the morning of the first postoperative day. Oxygen delivery index (DO₂I) and oxygen consumption index (VO₂I) were also significantly increased in the dopexamine group (DO₂I: from 416±91 to 717±110 ml/m² · m²; VO₂I: from 98±25 to 157±22 ml/m² · m²), being significantly higher than in the control group. pHi remained stable only in the dopexamine patients, indicating adequate splanchnic perfusion. Vasopressive regulators of circulation increased significantly only in the untreated control patients (vasopressin: from 4.37±1.1 to 35.9±12.1 pg/ml; ET-1: from 2.88±0.91 to 6.91±1.20 pg/ml). Conclusion: Patients undergoing major abdominal surgery may profit from prophylactic perioperative administration of dopexamine hydrochloride in the form of improved haemodynamics and oxygenation as well as beneficial influence on important regulators of organ blood flow.     

Systemic analgesia adapted to the children's condition

A concept of balanced analgesia using nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), paracetamol (acetaminophen), opioids, and corticosteroids can also be used in patients with pre-existing illnesses. NSAIDs are the most effective treatment for acute pain of moderate intensity in children; however, these drugs should be avoided in patients at increased risk for serious side effects, e.g. patients with renal impairment, bleeding tendency, or extreme prematurity. NSAIDs can be given with minimal risks to the younger child with mild to moderate asthma, and, in these patients, the use of steroids can be encouraged; in addition to their antiemetic and analgesic action, a beneficial effect on asthma symptoms can be expected. In the non-intubated child with cerebral trauma, exaggerated sedation caused by opioids and increased bleeding tendency caused by NSAIDs must be avoided. In neonates and small infants, the oral administration of sucrose or glucose is helpful to minimize pain reaction during short uncomfortable interventions.