The effect of preemptive analgesia with bupivacaine on postoperative pain of inguinal hernia repair under spinal anesthesia: a randomized clinical trial

Purpose

In the absence of any study on the use of bupivacaine as a long acting local anesthetic for the purpose of inducing preemptive analgesia in patients undergoing inguinal hernia repair under spinal anesthesia, this study was conducted to provide some evidence for possible benefits of such practice.

Methods

In this randomized clinical trial, local infiltration of bupivacaine in patients undergoing inguinal hernia repair under spinal anesthesia was compared with placebo. The patients were randomly divided to two groups of 30 including the case group who received 10 cc of 0.5 % bupivacaine and the control group who received 10 cc of normal saline in the operation site before surgical incision. At the end of spinal block effect, patients were followed for symptoms of pain intensity according to numerical rating scale method, nausea, vomiting and opioid use for 24 h past the operation.

Results

The pain scores, nausea, vomiting and postoperative opioid use were 69.6, 76.5, 83.2 and 80 % respectively lower in first 24 h among the case group (P < 0.001, P = 0.005, P = 0.001 and P < 0.001). The number of patients with at least one analgesic request in first 24 h after operation was 64.2 % lower in case group, while time of first analgesic request was 67 % longer in treatment group (P < 0.001 and P < 0.001).

Conclusion

The pre-operative local infiltration of bupivacaine reduces pain, nausea, vomiting and opioid use in the first 24 h after inguinal hernia surgery under spinal anesthesia. Therefore, further evaluation of the efficacy of this technique as a modality of preemptive analgesia is suggested.     

全身麻醉术后对中老年病人认知功能的影响

目的 研究全身麻醉对非心脏外科术后认知功能的影响。方法 随机选择40例无神经、精神系统疾病史或服用相应药物的择期非心脏外科手术病人（ASAI－Ⅱ），其中20例施行全身麻醉，20例施行全身麻醉复合硬膜外阻滞，分别就7项认知功能于术前、术后3d和7d进行测定评分。7项测试项目中至少2项，其中单项测试值低于基础值20％以上者即确定为认知功能损害。结果 40例病人术后3d和7d认知功能紊乱发生率分别为65．2％和40％。术后早期认知功能紊乱全麻复合硬膜外阻滞与单纯全麻组间无显著性差异。年龄与术后认知功能测试项目中的视觉再生（r=0.49)和钉板试验（r=0.49)有相关关系（P＜0．05）。结论 非心脏外科手术后病人特别是高龄病人早期存在认知功能紊乱，应当引起临床医生的足够重视。     

Anxiolysis and postoperative pain in patients undergoing spinal anesthesia for abdominal hysterectomy

AIM: The relationship between pain and psychological factors is well known. The aim of the study was to evaluate the influence of lorazepam, given before total abdominal hysterectomy, on postoperative pain control. METHODS: Sixty patients, enrolled in the study, were defined as either anxious or not anxious when the State/Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) score was =/>51 or =/< 50, respectively. The anxious patients were randomly assigned to receive oral lorazepam 0.035 mg/kg the night and 2 h before surgery (Group A), or placebo at the same time (Group B). The not anxious patients were assigned to receive oral lorazepam 0.035 mg/kg the night and 2 h before surgery (Group C), or placebo at the same time (Group D). Anesthesia was performed with subarachnoidal block. Ketorolac was used for postoperative pain. As rescue drug, tramadol was administered using a patient controlled analgesia (PCA) modality. Postoperative pain was assessed during the 24 h after surgery by tramadol consumption. RESULTS: Tramadol consumption was significantly greater in Group B (216.3+/-58.9 mg) than in Groups A, C and D respectively (150.9+/-28.9 mg; 153.6+/-39.9 mg; 154.4+/-39.9 mg). Group B showed a significantly higher pain score compared to the other groups during the first 8 h. No difference in patient satisfaction with perioperative treatment was noted. CONCLUSION: Preoperative lorazepam reduced perioperative anxiety. This could explain the better postoperative pain control in patients undergoing hysterectomy, a very stressful surgical procedure.     

Case of postoperative increased anesthesia level with spinal anesthesia

A patient, 35 weeks and 2 days gestation with twins, was scheduled for cesarean section. Spinal anesthesia was induced with the patient in lateral decubitus position using 2.2 ml hyperbaric bupivacaine 0.5% at the L3-4 interspace. The patient was placed immediately in supine position. After 5 min, sensory block level was confirmed T5. Operation was performed with no complications. Patient left the operating room 60 min after the induction. In the ward, the patient complained of respiratory distress and inability to move hands. Sensory block level reached C4 2 hours after spinal anesthesia induction. Four hours after induction, patient's sensory and motor paralysis recovered completely. In our operating room, patient enters and leaves with moving slide hatch machine. So patient's body moves to right and left side. We think that the increased anesthesia level was caused by this rolling of the body. We must be cautious about the increased anesthesia level when spinal anesthesia is induced.     

The efficacy of preemptive analgesia for acute postoperative pain management: a meta-analysis

Whether preemptive analgesic interventions are more effective than conventional regimens in managing acute postoperative pain remains controversial. We systematically searched for randomized controlled trials that specifically compared preoperative analgesic interventions with similar postoperative analgesic interventions via the same route. The retrieved reports were stratified according to five types of analgesic interventions: epidural analgesia, local anesthetic wound infiltration, systemic N-methyl-d-aspartic acid (NMDA) receptor antagonists, systemic nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), and systemic opioids. The primary outcome measures analyzed were the pain intensity scores, supplemental analgesic consumption, and time to first analgesic consumption. Sixty-six studies with data from 3261 patients were analyzed. Data were combined by using a fixed-effect model, and the effect size index (ES) used was the standardized mean difference. When the data from all three outcome measures were combined, the ES was most pronounced for preemptive administration of epidural analgesia (ES, 0.38; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.28-0.47), local anesthetic wound infiltration (ES, 0.29; 95% CI, 0.17-0.40), and NSAID administration (ES, 0.39; 95% CI, 0.27-0.48). Whereas preemptive epidural analgesia resulted in consistent improvements in all three outcome variables, preemptive local anesthetic wound infiltration and NSAID administration improved analgesic consumption and time to first rescue analgesic request, but not postoperative pain scores. The least proof of efficacy was found in the case of systemic NMDA antagonist (ES, 0.09; 95% CI, -0.03 to 0.22) and opioid (ES, -0.10; 95% CI, -0.26 to 0.07) administration, and the results remain equivocal.     

Regional anesthesia for postoperative pain control

Pain is the most frequent and straining symptom after surgery. Regardless of the severity of the surgical trauma patients may suffer from severe pain and may therefore not tolerate or even refuse important postoperative interventions for fear of pain. This may influence the outcome and worsen the prognosis of surgical patients. Physicians are therefore ethically and legally bound to care for adequate pain management. Regional anesthesia, especially epidural analgesia, is most effective to treat postoperative pain. It is discussed whether the incidence and severity of chronic postoperative pain can be reduced and postoperative complications can be prevented by this technique. Epidural analgesia may reduce the risk of postoperative complications (i.e. myocardial infarction) by reducing the surgical stress response and inhibiting the pathophysiological cascade that may trigger undesirable sequelea.     

腹壁局麻复合胆囊床浸润麻醉对术后疼痛的影响

目的 探讨气腹前腹壁用罗哌卡因局麻和胆囊床放置含罗哌卡因、芬太尼混合液的明胶海绵对腹腔镜胆囊切除术后疼痛的影响.方法 腹腔镜胆囊切除术的患者50例,随机均分为研究组和对照组.研究组采用0.45罗哌卡因20 ml在腹壁三个打孔处局部麻醉,并于胆囊切除止血后,胆囊床处放置明胶海绵两片(含0.9%的罗哌卡因和0.05 mg芬太尼的混合液5 ml).对照组除腹壁浸润注射生理盐水外,并在胆囊切除后,静脉给予芬太尼0.05 mg.记录术后1、2、3、6、9和24 h的VAS评分.结果 研究组术后各时点静息、运动VAS评分小于对照组(P<0.05).术后研究组右肩痛发生率、镇痛药使用率明显低于对照组(P<0.05).结论 腹壁局部麻醉和胆囊床放置含罗哌卡因和芬太尼的明胶海绵,对腹腔镜胆囊切除术后的疼痛有减轻作用.     

Effects of preemptive analgesia on pain and cytokine production in the postoperative period

BACKGROUND: The postoperative period is associated with increased production of proinflammatory cytokines, which are known to augment pain sensitivity, among other effects. In a previous study, the authors found that patients treated with patient-controlled epidural analgesia (PCEA) exhibited attenuated proinflammatory cytokine response in the postoperative period. In the present study, the authors examined whether preemptive analgesia continued with PCEA may further attenuate the proinflammatory cytokine response and reduce pain sensitivity in the postoperative period. They compared cytokine production in two groups of patients, one receiving PCEA, the other receiving preemptive epidural analgesia continued by PCEA. METHODS: Female patients hospitalized for transabdominal hysterectomy were randomly assigned to one of two pain management techniques: PCEA or preemptive epidural analgesia followed by PCEA (PA + PCEA). Postoperative pain was assessed using the visual analog scale. Blood samples were collected before, 24, 48, and 72 h following surgery. Production of the following cytokines was assessed in stimulated peripheral blood mononuclear cells: interleukin (IL)-1beta, tumor necrosis factor alpha, IL-6, IL-1ra, IL-10, and IL-2. RESULTS: Patients of the PA + PCEA group exhibited lower pain scores throughout the 72 h postoperatively, compared with patients of the PCEA group. In patients of the PA + PCEA group in the postoperative period, production of IL-1beta, IL-6, IL-1ra, and IL-10 was significantly less elevated, while IL-2 production was significantly less suppressed. CONCLUSIONS: Proinflammatory cytokines are key mediators of illness symptoms, including hyperalgesia. The present results suggest that preemptive epidural analgesia is associated with reduced postoperative pain and attenuated production of proinflammatory cytokines.     

超前镇痛在小儿扁桃体和腺样体切除术中的应用

目的 观察氟比洛芬酯、曲马多、氯胺酮用于全麻下小儿扁桃体和腺样体切除术后患者的镇痛效果及安全性,以及找到适合小儿短小手术的超前镇痛药物,从而减少小儿全麻苏醒期的躁动及减轻术后疼痛.方法 选择择期在全麻行扁桃体、腺样体切除术的患儿80例,年龄4岁～14岁,美国麻醉医师协会(ASA)分级I～Ⅱ级.采用完全随机双盲法将患儿分为4组:F组为氟比洛芬酯超前镇痛组,K组为氯胺酮超前镇痛组,T组为曲马多超前镇痛组,C组为空白对照组,每组20例.F组于手术开始前10 min缓慢静脉注射氟比洛芬酯1 mg/kg.K组于手术开始前10 min缓慢静脉注射氯胺酮0.5 mg/kg.T组于手术开始前10 min缓慢静脉注射曲马多2 mg/kg.C组于手术开始前10 min缓慢静脉注射生理盐水3ml.观察术后镇痛评分,苏醒期躁动评分,循环、呼吸、血氧饱和度变化及副作用.结果 术后苏醒期躁动评分F组、K组和T组明显低于C组.术后0hF组、K组、T组视觉模拟(VAS)评分和改良目的评分法(MOPS评分)分别为(0.6±1.0)和(0.8±1.0)、(1.9±1.9)和(1.8±1.7)、(0.8±1.4)和(0.8±1.3),均明显低于C组的(3.7±1.7)和(3.5±1.5)(P＜0.01);F组VAS评分在术后8h为(0.9±1.0)显著低于K组(1.8±1.7)、T组(1.8±0.7)和C组(1.7±0.7)(P＜0.01);F组MOPS评分为(0.3±0.7)在术后8h低于C组(0.7±0.6)(P＜0.05);F组和T组VAS评分在术后0h低于K组(P＜0.05).4组术后各个时点的循环、呼吸、血氧饱和度变化均在正常范围,F组血压在术后0h显著低于K组、T组和C组,组间比较差异有统计学意义(P＜0.01).4组均无心律失常、呼吸抑制、凝血功能异常发生,恶心、呕吐、头晕、烦躁、做噩梦、腹痛等副作用发生率4组之间差异无统计学意义(P＞0.05).术后睡眠不佳发生率C组高于F组(P＜0.05).结论 氟比洛芬酯、氯胺酮、曲马多均能有效减少苏醒期躁动,但氯胺酮、曲马多均未显示超前镇痛效果,氟比洛芬酯超前镇痛效果良好,作用时间长,能有效缓解小儿短小手术的术后疼痛,无明显副作用,可安全用于小儿短小手术的术后镇痛.     

Severe lightning pain during spinal anesthesia

A 74-yr-old man was scheduled for the biopsy of prostatic tumor under spinal anesthesia. Preoperative serologic test for syphilis was highly positive. Spinal anesthesia was performed in the sitting position, and 2 ml of hyperbaric Neo-percamine S (a mixture of 0.24% dibucaine and 0.12% T-caine) was administered uneventfully with the onset of warm sensation on the perineal region. Ten minutes later, however, he began to complain of severe lightning sensation on the feet. After giving pentazocine intravenously, the short cystoscopic procedure was completed. As a cause of severe pain, an erroneous anesthetic solution or direct neuronal injury had been excluded because of rapid and complete recovery after anesthesia. Two weeks later, he was scheduled for TUR-P. He again complained of severe lightning pain after the successful spinal anesthesia with the same anesthetic solution. Because the pain was not relieved by analgesics, he was then anesthetized with enflurane and N2O in oxygen, and there were no neurological complications after anesthesia. Several cases of severe pain during spinal anesthesia have been reported in patients with tabes dorsalis. Although the patient lacks clear symptoms of neurosyphilis, positive serologic examination for syphilis without any other possible causes suggests altered sensitivity of the spinal cord to anesthetic solutions.     

静脉低剂量氯胺酮超前镇痛对腹腔镜胆囊切除术后苏醒和疼痛的影响

目的 观察氯胺酮切皮前给药对腹腔镜胆囊切除术(LC)后苏醒和疼痛的影响.方法 全麻下行LC患者80例,随机均分为两组:对照组采用雷米芬太尼复合丙泊酚麻醉;研究组在切皮前加用小剂量氯胺酮0.3 mg/kg.采用SS和VRS评分评估对苏醒时间和苏醒期躁动情况.结果 两组呼吸恢复时间、睁眼时间、拔管时间差异无统计学意义.研究组苏醒期躁动、镇痛、镇静效果显著优于对照组(P<0.05).结论 静脉低剂量氯胺酮超前镇痛用于LC术后苏醒快,术后疼痛轻,苏醒期躁动少.     

帕瑞昔布钠超前镇痛联合罗哌卡因局部浸润用于腹腔镜胆囊切除术患者术后镇痛的效果

目的 探讨帕瑞昔布钠超前镇痛联合罗哌卡因局部浸润用于腹腔镜胆囊切除术患者术后镇痛的效果.方法 选取拟在全麻下行腹腔镜胆囊切除术的患者150例,年龄41 ～ 63岁,体重55～87 kg,ASA分级Ⅰ级或Ⅱ级,采用随机数字表法,将患者随机分为3组(n=50):帕瑞昔布钠+0.9％生理盐水组(A组)、帕瑞昔布钠+0.5％罗哌卡因组(B组)和帕瑞昔布钠+0.75％罗哌卡因组(C组).于麻醉诱导前30 min静脉注射帕瑞昔布钠40 mg.采用瑞芬太尼和异丙酚双通道靶控输注麻醉.于缝皮前即刻,A组给予生理盐水12 ml,B组和C组分别给予0.5％和0.75％罗哌卡因12 ml行切口周围、皮下、肌肉、腹膜4点浸润麻醉.术后维持VAS评分≤3分,当VAS评分＞3分时,肌肉注射哌替啶75 mg.于术毕、术后2、4、8、12、24h时记录Ramsay镇静评分,记录术后24h内不良反应(恶心呕吐、过敏、呼吸抑制等)的发生情况、哌替啶使用情况、疼痛部位(切口痛、上腹痛、右肩牵涉痛)、切口愈合情况.结果 与A组相比,B组和C组Ramsay镇静评分、恶心和呕吐发生率、哌替啶使用率和总用量及切口痛发生率降低(P＜0.05或0.01);与B组相比,C组哌替啶使用率和总用量及切口痛发生率降低(P＜ 0.05或0.01),Ramsay镇静评分差异无统计学意义(P＞0.05);3组切口愈合情况、上腹痛和右肩部牵涉痛的发生率比较差异无统计学意义(P＞0.05).结论 对于腹腔镜胆囊切除术患者,罗哌卡因局部浸润麻醉可优化帕瑞昔布钠超前镇痛的效果,且采用0.75％罗哌卡因时可产生良好的术后镇痛效果.     

Topical wound anesthesia for postoperative pain relief

Abstract: Pain from uncomplicated surgical wounds is most pronounced during the first postoperative days. Effective pain relief with a minimum of sedation, motor paralysis or disturbance of protective reflex functions is a prerequisite for early mobilization of the patient in day-case surgery as well as for reducing the risk of postoperative pulmonary and thromboembolic complications in connection with in-hospital procedures. The aim of this thesis was to evaluate topical lidocaine aerosol in the surgical wound as a method of suppressing postoperative pain, and to study some of the mechanisms of amide local anesthetics on the pain-inducing inflammatory responses of the wound area. Postoperative pain (VAS) and opioid analgesic consumption were measured after a single dose of lidocaine aerosol in the wound of minor and major surgical procedures. The accumulation, viability and metabolic responsiveness of leukocytes harvested from titanium chambers implanted in an experimental surgical wound of rats in vivo after treatment with lidocaine aerosol were studied. To investigate the dose-response effects of lidocaine and bupivacaine on the metabolic response and release of leukotrienes and interleukins, human leukocytes were studied in vitro. Topical lidocaine aerosol administered as a single dose at wound closure was found to offer significant pain relief and reduced consumption of opioid analgesics during the first 24 postoperative hours. Combination with NSAID administered pre- and postoperatively did not add to the analgesic effect of lidocaine or NSAID alone. Lidocaine aerosol reduced the number and metabolic responsiveness of leukocytes harvested from rat experimental wounds without affecting the viability of the cells. In vitro, amide local anesthetics were shown to reduce in a dose-dependent manner the metabolic response of human leukocytes as well as their release of leukotriene B₄ and the release of interleukin-lalpha from human monocytes. Results showed that a single dose of lidocaine aerosol in the surgical wound of extra- and intraabdominal procedures induced a long-lasting analgesic effect. The duration and potency are suggested to be secondary to slow-release and reduced washout of lidocaine from the aerosol solution and, apart from the nerve-blocking effect, due to the anti-inflammatory properties of amide local anesthetics.     

超前镇痛对腹部手术全麻患者术后认知功能障碍的影响

目的 分析超前镇痛干预对腹部手术全麻患者术后认知功能的影响。方法 择期开腹胃肠部手术、麻醉时间超过3小时的患者40例,分为四组,全凭静脉麻醉组（TIVA组）10例与全凭静脉麻醉+超前镇痛干预组（TIVA干预组）10例;静吸复合麻醉组（CIIA组）10例与静吸复合麻醉+超前镇痛干预组（CIIA干预组）10例。术前1天、术后1天、术后7天对所有患者采用简易精神状态检查量表（MMSE）、连线测验量表（TMT）、简易视觉记忆量表（BVMT）、霍普金斯词语学习量表（HVLT）进行认知功能的评分,并检测血清C-反应蛋白（CRP）、白介素-6（IL-6）含量,对所有患者术后24小时均用视觉模拟评分法（VAS）进行疼痛评分,比较四组患者认知功能、CRP与IL-6含量、VAS评分的差异。结果 TIVA、CIIA、CIIA干预三组患者术后1天MMSE、BVMT、HVLT评分下降明显（P<0.05）：MMSE、BVMT评分下降最多的是CIIA组;HVLT-T评分下降最多的是CIIA与CIIA干预组;术后7天TIVA组患者HVLT-R评分恢复到术前1天水平,CIIA组患者HVLT-R评分虽较术后1天有所改善但仍低于术前1天水平（P<0.05）;术后7天CIIA、CIIA干预两组患者HVLT-T评仍低于术前1天水平（P<0.05）。TIVA干预与CIIA干预两组术后24小时VAS评分明显低于TIVA与CIIA组（P<0.05）。TIVA干预、CIIA干预两组术后1天CRP、IL-6含量的总体均数明显低于TIVA、CIIA两组（P<0.05）。结论 七氟醚在术后短时间POCD发生中占主导地位;而NASIDs类药物帕瑞昔布钠和局部神经阻滞超前镇痛对于POCD的影响有局限性,在全凭静脉麻醉患者应用则有积极作用,对于持续吸入3小时以上七氟醚的静吸复合麻醉患者作用不明显。     

The influence of hyperbaric bupivacaine temperature on the spread of spinal anesthesia

The distribution of spinal anesthesia is affected by the density and viscosity of the local anesthetic solution that, in turn, may be influenced by the temperature of the injectate. Our hypothesis in the present study was that the temperature of the injectate influences its distribution into the subarachnoid space. We measured the density and viscosity of hyperbaric 0.5% bupivacaine at 25 degrees C and 37 degrees C and tested the onset and extent of spinal anesthesia achieved by these solutions in 36 patients. The densities of the two solutions were similar (mean [sd]): 25 degrees C, 1.028 [0.000], versus 37 degrees C, 1.028 [0.000] (g/mL), but the viscosity was more at 25 degrees C than at 37 degrees C (0.01116 [0.00003] versus 0.00843 [0.00002] g x cm(-1) x s(-1); P < 0.001). The maximum cephalad extent of loss of pinprick sensation was significantly higher with 37 degrees C (T2 with 37 degrees C versus T5 with 25 degrees C; P < 0.001), but the time to achieve peak block height was similar. In conclusion, we showed a consistent, but modest, increase in the cephalad level of spinal anesthesia by warming hyperbaric bupivacaine 0.5% from 25 degrees C to 37 degrees C. Viscosity was reduced in the warmed solution, but it is unclear if this or other factors led to the difference in spinal anesthetic level.