Initial experience in treating lung cancer with helical tomotherapy

Helical tomotherapy is a new form of image-guided radiation therapy that combines features of a linear accelerator and a helical computed tomography (CT) scanner. Megavoltage CT (MVCT) data allow the verification and correction of patient setup on the couch by comparison and image registration with the kilovoltage CT multi-slice images used for treatment planning. An 84-year-old male patient with Stage III bulky non-small cell lung cancer was treated on a Hi-ART II tomotherapy unit. Daily MVCT imaging was useful for setup corrections and signaled the need to adapt the delivery plan when the patient's anatomy changed significantly.     

宫颈癌螺旋断层放疗与静态调强技术的剂量学比较

目的:比较宫颈癌盆腔照射螺旋断层放射治疗（Helical Tomotherapy, HT）计划与七野-静态调强放疗（7F-IMRT）计划的靶区和危及器官的剂量学差异。 方法:选取2015年3月~2017年10月行HT治疗的25例宫颈癌患者,均采用俯卧位,憋尿状态。分别进行HT和7F-IMRT两种计划设计,比较两种计划模式之间靶区和危及器官之间的剂量学参数及机器输出跳数。 结果:（1）计划靶区（PTV）:HT组CI和HI均优于7F-IMRT组,具有统计学差异（0.898±0.017 vs 0.834±0.013, P<0.001;0.062±0.012 vs 0.109±0.019, P<0.001）;HT组PTV的D1、D2均低于7F-IMRT组（P<0.001）,Dmean、D98、D95均较7F-IMRT组高（P=0.048, P<0.001, P=0.015）。（2）对于正常组织,HT组小肠、结肠、直肠和膀胱的Dmax、Dmean、V30、V40以及直肠V50均显著低于7F-IMRT组（P<0.001, P<0.001, P<0.001, P=0.001, P=0.006）,其余V50略低,无统计学差异（P=0.130）;HT组双侧股骨头V25、D5、Dmean、Dmax也显著低于7F-IMRT组（P<0.001）;但是,HT组的机器输出量明显高于7F-IMRT组。 结论:HT计划在适形度、均匀性及周围正常组织保护上显著优于7F-IMRT计划,在充分保证靶区剂量的同时又不增加患者放疗毒副反应;但其机器输出量高于7F-IMRT计划,对射束的利用率不高。在后续治疗实施过程中,HT系统作为影像引导放射治疗技术,确保每次治疗过程中的精准度,值得临床应用。     

螺旋断层放疗在全脑照射保护海马回区计划中的影响因素

目的:研究螺旋断层放疗（HT）在全脑照射保护海马回区（HS-WBRT）计划中各项参数对结果的影响。方法:选取8例行HS-WBRT的患者,在瓦里安Eclipse 13.5医生工作站进行靶区和危及器官的勾画,左右海马基于CT图像和MR图像融合勾画,同时外扩5 mm作为海马减量区,靶区为全脑减去海马回区均匀外扩5 mm的区域,危及器官包括海马回区、海马减量区、眼球和晶体。将勾画好的结构和图像传至HT物理师工作站进行计划设计,处方剂量25 Gy/10 F,射野宽度（FW）分别选择1.0、2.5、5.0 cm,螺距（Pitch）分别选择0.215、0.287、0.430,调制因子（MF）分别选择1.5、2.0、2.5、3.0、3.5、4.0、4.5、5.0,剂量计算网格（0.195 cm×0.195 cm）,其余计划参数都保持一致,分别设计不同组合参数的计划。最后统计分析不同计划参数对靶区及危及器官的剂量分布及执行效率的影响。结果:使用不同参数制作的计划均满足临床要求。通过比较不同FW、Pitch和MF对靶区及危及器官的影响,FW和MF影响最大,Pitch无影响。从计划质量考虑,FW为1.0 cm时剂量分布最佳,FW为2.5 cm时次之,FW为5 cm时最差;从治疗效率考虑,FW为5 cm时效率最高,FW为2.5 cm时效率次之,FW为1.0 cm时最差。当FW为1.0 cm时,MF选择2.5左右最佳;当FW为2.5 cm,MF选择4左右最佳;当FW为5 cm时,MF选择4左右最佳;此时减小MF会降低计划质量,而增大MF对改善剂量分布无意义,仅会增加治疗出束时间,降低治疗效率。结论:在进行HS-WBRT的计划设计中,需根据临床要求选择合适的计划参数。当临床侧重计划质量时,可选择FW为1 cm或2.5 cm,此时MF选择对应的2.5左右或4左右最佳;当侧重治疗效率时,可选择FW为5.0 cm或2.5 cm,此时MF选择4左右最佳;当兼顾计划质量和执行效率时,可选择FW为2.5 cm,此时MF选择4左右最佳,实现计划质量和治疗效率的平衡。     

Optimization of helical tomotherapy treatment plans for prostate cancer

Helical tomotherapy (HT) is a novel treatment approach where the ring gantry irradiation geometry of a helical CT scanner is combined with an intensity-modulated megavoltage x-ray fan beam. An inverse treatment planning system (TomoTherapy Inc., Madison) was used to optimize the treatment plans for ten randomly selected prostate patients. Five different sets of margins (2, 5, 7.5 and 10 mm uniform 3D margins and a non-uniform margin of 5 to 10 mm) were employed for the prostate (GTV2) and seminal vesicles (GTV1). The dose distribution was evaluated in targets, rectum, bladder and femoral heads. HT plans are characterized by a rapid dose fall off around the target in all directions resulting in low doses (less than 30% of the dose at ICRU reference point) to the femurs in all cases. Up to a margin of 5 mm for target structures, it was always possible to satisfy the requirements for dose delivery set by RTOG protocol P-0126. Using a 'class solution', HT plans require minimal operator interaction and result in excellent sparing of normal structures in prostate radiotherapy.     

Verification of helical tomotherapy delivery using autoassociative kernel regression

Quality assurance (QA) is a topic of major concern in the field of intensity modulated radiation therapy (IMRT). The standard of practice for IMRT is to perform QA testing for individual patients to verify that the dose distribution will be delivered to the patient. The purpose of this study was to develop a new technique that could eventually be used to automatically evaluate helical tomotherapy treatments during delivery using exit detector data. This technique uses an autoassociative kernel regression (AAKR) model to detect errors in tomotherapy delivery. AAKR is a novel nonparametric model that is known to predict a group of correct sensor values when supplied a group of sensor values that is usually corrupted or contains faults such as machine failure. This modeling scheme is especially suited for the problem of monitoring the fluence values found in the exit detector data because it is able to learn the complex detector data relationships. This scheme still applies when detector data are summed over many frames with a low temporal resolution and a variable beam attenuation resulting from patient movement. Delivery sequences from three archived patients (prostate, lung, and head and neck) were used in this study. Each delivery sequence was modified by reducing the opening time for random individual multileaf collimator (MLC) leaves by random amounts. The errof and error-free treatments were delivered with different phantoms in the path of the beam. Multiple autoassociative kernel regression (AAKR) models were developed and tested by the investigators using combinations of the stored exit detector data sets from each delivery. The models proved robust and were able to predict the correct or error-free values for a projection, which had a single MLC leaf decrease its opening time by less than 10 msec. The model also was able to determine machine output errors. The average uncertainty value for the unfaulted projections ranged from 0.4% to 1.8% of the detector signal. The low model uncertainty indicates that the AAKR model is extremely accurate in its predictions and also suggests that the model may be able to detect errors that cause the fluence to change by less than 2%. However, additional evaluation of the AAKR technique is needed to determine the minimum detectable error threshold from the compressed helical tomotherapy detector data. Further research also needs to explore applying this technique to electronic portal imaging detector data.     

Comparison of fixed-beam IMRT, helical tomotherapy, and IMPT for selected cases

A growing number of advanced intensity modulated treatment techniques is becoming available. In this study, the specific strengths and weaknesses of four techniques, static and dynamic multileaf collimator (MLC), conventional linac-based IMRT, helical tomotherapy (HT), and spot-scanning proton therapy (IMPT) are investigated in the framework of biological, EUD-based dose optimization. All techniques were implemented in the same in-house dose optimization tool. Monte Carlo dose computation was used in all cases. All dose-limiting, normal tissue objectives were treated as hard constraints so as to facilitate comparability. Five patient cases were selected to offer each technique a chance to show its strengths: a deep-seated prostate case (for 15 MV linac-based IMRT), a pediatric case (for IMPT), an extensive head-and-neck case (for HT), a lung tumor (for HT), and an optical neurinoma (for noncoplanar linac-based IMRT with a miniMLC). The plans were compared by dose statistics and equivalent uniform dose metrics. All techniques delivered results that were comparable with respect to target coverage and the most dose-limiting normal tissues. Static MLC IMRT struggled to achieve sufficient target coverage at the same level of dose homogeneity in the lung case. IMPT gained the greatest advantage when lung sparing was important, but did not significantly reduce the risk of nearby organs. Tomotherapy and dynamic MLC IMRT showed mostly the same performance. Despite the apparent conceptual differences, all four techniques fare equally well for standard patient cases. The absence of relevant differences is in part due to biological optimization, which offers more freedom to shape the dose than do, e.g., dose volume histogram constraints. Each technique excels for certain classes of highly complex cases, and hence the various modalities should be viewed as complementary, rather than competing.     

肺癌螺旋断层放疗计划设计中应用Block减少肺低剂量区的研究

目的: 研究非小细胞肺癌螺旋断层放疗计划设计中应用Block降低肺低剂量区的方法。 方法:选取20例非小细胞肺癌病例,对每例病例勾画保护区域作为Block,并按以下3种不同的Block设置方式设计放疗计划。第I组采用Unblock方式,第II组采用Directional Block方式,第III组采用Complete Block+Directional Block方式。优化结果满足靶区和危及器官剂量限值后,比较3组方案计划靶区和肺组织剂量分布、剂量体积直方图（DVH）和单次治疗时间,用单向方差分析方法（One-Way ANOVA）对相关数据的差异性进行统计学分析。 结果:I到III组,双肺V5依次为（51.3±6.5）%、（37.4±5.0）%、（26.5±2.9）%,双肺平均剂量（MLD）依次为（10.4±0.5）%、（9.4±0.8）%、（8.2±1.0）%。将第II组和第III组分别与第I组进行比较,双肺V5分别降低了27%、48%,双肺MLD分别降低了9.6%、21%。V5和MLD明显降低,差异具有统计学意义。与此同时,PTV剂量均匀性变差,均匀性指数依次为0.065±0.003、0.082±0.006、0.084±0.011,差异具有统计学意义。PTV适形度指数依次为0.77±0.07、0.69±0.09、0.62±0.08,差异不具有统计学意义。I到III组的治疗时间依次为（5.5±0.5）、（11.8±0.6）、（16.3±2.3） min,第II组和第III组的治疗时间分别是第I组的2.1倍和2.9倍。 结论:非小细胞肺癌螺旋断层放疗计划设计时,运用Complete Block和Directional Block能够有效减少正常肺组织V5的体积,同时可以降低MLD,但靶区的均匀性和适形性会受一定影响（仍符合临床要求）,治疗时间也会相应变长。     

Optimization of megavoltage CT scan registration settings for thoracic cases on helical tomotherapy

This study aims to investigate the settings that provide optimum registration accuracy when registering megavoltage CT (MVCT) studies acquired on tomotherapy with planning kilovoltage CT (kVCT) studies of patients with lung cancer. For each experiment, the systematic difference between the actual and planned positions of the thorax phantom was determined by setting the phantom up at the planning isocenter, generating and registering an MVCT study. The phantom was translated by 5 or 10 mm, MVCT scanned, and registration was performed again. A root-mean-square equation that calculated the residual error of the registration based on the known shift and systematic difference was used to assess the accuracy of the registration process. The phantom study results for 18 combinations of different MVCT/kVCT registration options are presented and compared to clinical registration data from 17 lung cancer patients. MVCT studies acquired with coarse (6 mm), normal (4 mm) and fine (2 mm) slice spacings could all be registered with similar residual errors. No specific combination of resolution and fusion selection technique resulted in a lower residual error. A scan length of 6 cm with any slice spacing registered with the full image fusion selection technique and fine resolution will result in a low residual error most of the time. On average, large corrections made manually by clinicians to the automatic registration values are infrequent. Small manual corrections within the residual error averages of the registration process occur, but their impact on the average patient position is small. Registrations using the full image fusion selection technique and fine resolution of 6 cm MVCT scans with coarse slices have a low residual error, and this strategy can be clinically used for lung cancer patients treated on tomotherapy. Automatic registration values are accurate on average, and a quick verification on a sagittal MVCT slice should be enough to detect registration outliers.     

螺旋断层动态钨门技术在宫颈癌术后放疗中的应用

目的:通过评估动态钨门技术的计划质量和执行效率,探讨能否在螺旋断层调强放疗中使用射野宽度5.0 cm的动态钨门代替2.5 cm的固定钨门应用于宫颈癌术后放疗。方法:选取25例宫颈癌术后患者,相同优化条件下分别使用射野宽度2.5 cm的固定钨门（2.5F）、2.5 cm的动态钨门（2.5D）和5.0 cm的动态钨门（5.0D）进行计划设计和评估。比较3组计划靶区的D95、Dmean、均匀性指数（HI）、适形度指数（CI）、危及器官的受照剂量、机器跳数和照射时间。结果:2.5D组得到的靶区CI和HI优于其他两组（P<0.05）,其他剂量学参数的差异无统计学意义（P>0.05）。2.5F组与2.5D和5.0D组相比,直肠和膀胱的V20、V40、Dmean,以及小肠的V20均增加（P<0.05）;2.5F组与5.0D组相比,骨、股骨头和小肠的Dmean均降低（P<0.05）。与2.5D组相比,5.0D组的直肠、膀胱和小肠的V20、骨和小肠的Dmean均增加（P<0.05）。5.0D组的机器跳数和照射时间与2.5D和2.5F组相比分别减少了46.1%、45.1%、45.0%、44.1%（t=17.703、-40.698、17.654、-40.414, P<0.05）。结论:综合考虑计划质量和照射效率,建议采用5.0D组应用于宫颈癌术后螺旋断层调强放疗,在满足临床要求的同时可以显著缩短照射时间。若只考虑计划质量则选择2.5D组。     

Radiation characteristics of helical tomotherapy

Helical tomotherapy is a dedicated intensity modulated radiation therapy (IMRT) system with on-board imaging capability (MVCT) and therefore differs from conventional treatment units. Different design goals resulted in some distinctive radiation field characteristics. The most significant differences in the design are the lack of flattening filter, increased shielding of the collimators, treatment and imaging operation modes and narrow fan beam delivery. Radiation characteristics of the helical tomotherapy system, sensitivity studies of various incident electron beam parameters and radiation safety analyses are presented here. It was determined that the photon beam energy spectrum of helical tomotherapy is similar to that of more conventional radiation treatment units. The two operational modes of the system result in different nominal energies of the incident electron beam with approximately 6 MeV and 3.5 MeV in the treatment and imaging modes, respectively. The off-axis mean energy dependence is much lower than in conventional radiotherapy units with less than 5% variation across the field, which is the consequence of the absent flattening filter. For the same reason the transverse profile exhibits the characteristic conical shape resulting in a 2-fold increase of the beam intensity in the center. The radiation leakage outside the field was found to be negligible at less than 0.05% because of the increased shielding of the collimators. At this level the in-field scattering is a dominant source of the radiation outside the field and thus a narrow field treatment does not result in the increased leakage. The sensitivity studies showed increased sensitivity on the incident electron position because of the narrow fan beam delivery and high sensitivity on the incident electron energy, as common to other treatment systems. All in all, it was determined that helical tomotherapy is a system with some unique radiation characteristics, which have been to a large extent optimized for intensity modulated delivery.     

不同铅门模式下高危分期前列腺癌螺旋断层放射治疗剂量学比较

【摘要】目的:探讨高危分期前列腺癌行螺旋断层局部照射同步盆腔淋巴结照射时,不同铅门模式下（静态和动态）靶区及危及器官的剂量学特点。方法:选取8例需行局部照射同步盆腔淋巴结照射的高危分期前列腺癌患者,分别设计铅门宽度为1.050、2.512和5.050 cm的3组静态铅门计划（F1.050、F2.512、F5.050）以及宽度为2.512、5.050 cm的2组动态铅门计划（D2.512、D5.050）。比较不同计划设计下靶区及危及器官的剂量分布、剂量体积直方图以及出束时间和机器跳数等。结果:在不同铅门模式下,靶区剂量学差异几乎无统计学意义（P>0.05）。而在膀胱、直肠以及股骨头的剂量学比较上,当铅门宽度相同时,动态铅门计划几乎与静态铅门计划相当;当铅门宽度不同时,静态铅门计划远优于比之大一档宽度的动态铅门计划。在非肿瘤组织的剂量辐射比较上,动态铅门技术均体现出了明显的剂量学优势。在计划实施效率方面,各计划平均机器跳数、平均出束时间均随F5.050、D5.050、F2.512、D2.512、F1.050顺序依次递增。结论:对于需行局部照射同步盆腔淋巴结照射的高危分期前列腺癌患者,动态铅门优势有限且在一定程度上降低了计划的实施效率。     

基于螺旋断层全身皮肤照射治疗难治性皮肤T细胞淋巴瘤中蕈样 霉菌病

目的:探讨使用螺旋断层进行全身皮肤照射治疗难治性皮肤T细胞淋巴瘤中蕈样霉菌病的方法。方法:具有7年 病史的男性患者确诊为全身多发皮肤T细胞淋巴瘤中的蕈样霉菌病,行全身皮肤照射,采用5 mm氯丁橡胶潜水衣作为组 织补偿物,利用其剂量建成效应提高全身皮肤剂量。患者分上下两段扫描,髌骨上方10 cm附近作为分界线,总处方 剂量24 Gy,单次1.2 Gy执行20次,5次/周。计划设计采用射野宽度5 cm,螺距0.287,调制因子2.5,在体中心加入全挡模 式以减少内部危及器官受量,尤其是全身骨髓剂量,以降低骨髓抑制的发生率。通过Cheese Phantom点剂量、ArcCHECK 三维面剂量及全身多点EBT3胶片验证,确保剂量投照的准确性。最后利用兆伏级图像多部位引导确保摆位和治疗的精 度。结果:上段靶区和下段靶区均实现95%靶区体积达到处方剂量,下段靶区的适形度指数和均匀性指数略优于上段靶 区。全身骨髓随着距离皮肤间距的缩小而受量逐步增加,其余危及器官剂量均在临床可接受范围之内。点剂量验证偏差 小于1%,三维面剂量验证Gamma通过率大于90%,胶片多点剂量验证偏差小于5%,多种验证确保实际投照剂量的准确 性,整个治疗过程时间约1 h（包括摆位和图像引导）,患者治疗后期仅出现轻微的乏力、恶心、呕吐、低热及Ⅲ度骨髓抑制, 整个治疗效果接近完全缓解。结论:该方法具有剂量分布均匀、治疗时间短、实施过程简易、治疗效果佳和毒副作用低的 特点,适合在临床中广泛开展,但对剂量建成层的组织补偿物选择及治疗后的毒副作用尤其是骨髓抑制需进一步探讨。     

Quality assurance of a helical tomotherapy machine

Helical tomotherapy has been developed at the University of Wisconsin, and 'Hi-Art II' clinical machines are now commercially manufactured. At the core of each machine lies a ring-gantry-mounted short linear accelerator which generates x-rays that are collimated into a fan beam of intensity-modulated radiation by a binary multileaf, the modulation being variable with gantry angle. Patients are treated lying on a couch which is translated continuously through the bore of the machine as the gantry rotates. Highly conformal dose-distributions can be delivered using this technique, which is the therapy equivalent of spiral computed tomography. The approach requires synchrony of gantry rotation, couch translation, accelerator pulsing and the opening and closing of the leaves of the binary multileaf collimator used to modulate the radiation beam. In the course of clinically implementing helical tomotherapy, we have developed a quality assurance (QA) system for our machine. The system is analogous to that recommended for conventional clinical linear accelerator QA by AAPM Task Group 40 but contains some novel components, reflecting differences between the Hi-Art devices and conventional clinical accelerators. Here the design and dosimetric characteristics of Hi-Art machines are summarized and the QA system is set out along with experimental details of its implementation. Connections between this machine-based QA work, pre-treatment patient-specific delivery QA and fraction-by-fraction dose verification are discussed.     

Benchmarking beam alignment for a clinical helical tomotherapy device

A clinical helical tomotherapy treatment machine has been installed at the University of Wisconsin Comprehensive Cancer Center. Beam alignment has been finalized and accepted by UW staff. Helical tomotherapy will soon be clinically available to other sites. Clinical physicists who expect to work with this machine will need to be familiar with its unique dosimetric characteristics, and those related to the geometrical beam configuration and its verification are described here. A series of alignment tests and the results are presented. Helical tomotherapy utilizes an array of post-patient xenon-filled megavoltage radiation detectors. These detectors have proved capable of performing some alignment verification tests. That is particularly advantageous because those tests can then be automated and easily performed on an ongoing basis.     

Patient specific treatment verifications for helical tomotherapy treatment plans

We performed two-dimensional treatment verifications for ten patients planned and treated with helical tomotherapy. The treatment verification consisted of a film measurement as well as point dose measurements made with an ion chamber. The agreement between the calculated and the measured film dose distributions was evaluated with the gamma index calculated for three sets of criteria (2 mm and 2%, 4 mm and 3%, and 3 mm and 5%) as recommended in the literature. Good agreement was found between measured and calculated distributions without any need of normalization of the dose data but with dose map registration using reference marks. In this case, 69.8 +/- 17.2%, 92.6 +/- 9.0%, and 93.4 +/- 8.5% passed the 2 mm and 2%, 4 mm and 3%, and 3 mm and 5% criteria, respectively. Agreement was excellent when both normalization and manual registration of the dose maps was employed. In this case 91.2 +/- 5.6%, 99.0 +/- 1.4%, and 99.5 +/- 0.8% passed the 2 mm and 2%, 4 mm and 3%, and 3 mm and 5% criteria, respectively. The mean percent discrepancy for the point dose measurements was -0.5 +/- 1.1%, -2.4 +/- 3.7%, -1.1 +/- 7.3% for the high dose, low dose, and critical structure point, respectively. Three criteria for a satisfactory treatment verification in the high dose regions of a plan were established. For the un-normalized reference mark registered data 80% of pixels must pass the 3 mm and 5% criteria. For the normalized and manually registered data, 80% must pass the 2 mm and 2% criteria, and the point dose measurement must be within 2% of the calculated dose. All low dose region/critical structure point dose measurements were evaluated on a patient by patient basis. The criteria we recommend can be useful for the routine evaluation of treatment plans for tomotherapy systems.     

螺旋断层调强放疗进行全中枢神经系统照射时不同部位靶区外放的临床研究

目的:分析使用螺旋断层加速器TOMO进行全中枢神经系统放疗的患者的MVCT图像,以颅骨、颈椎、胸椎、腰椎和整体靶区（PTVROI）为感兴趣区分别进行图像配准和摆位误差统计,计算各感兴趣区的靶区外放。方法:回顾性分析中国医学科学院肿瘤医院2016年~2020年使用TOMO行全中枢神经系统放疗的16例患者的154套MVCT图像,分别以颅骨、颈椎、胸椎、腰椎和PTVROI进行配准,统计不同部位靶区的摆位误差数据,得到5组包含左右（X）方向、头脚（Y）方向、腹背（Z）方向的摆位误差数据,比较颅骨、颈椎、胸椎、腰椎和PTVROI是否有差异,并应用公式M=2.5Σ+0.7σ分别计算不同部位的临床靶区到计划靶区的外放边界。结果:在X方向上的两两比较中,颅骨vs颈椎,差异有统计学意义（P=0.023）,其余各组比较均无显著性差异;Y方向上的两两比较均未显示有显著性差异;而在Z方向上,PTVROI vs颅骨、PTVROI vs胸椎,无显著性差异,其他组两两比较,PTVROI vs颈椎（P<0.001）、PTVROI vs腰椎（P<0.001）、颅骨vs颈椎（P=0.007）、颅骨vs胸椎（P=0.017）、颅骨vs腰椎（P<0.001）、颈椎vs胸椎（P<0.001）、颈椎vs腰椎（P<0.001）、胸椎vs腰椎（P<0.001）,差异有统计学意义。结论:使用TOMO行全中枢神经系统放疗,Y方向的靶区外放差异较小,X和Z方向的靶区外放边界从头到腰椎呈递增趋势,建议在中枢的不同位置采取不同的PTV外放策略。