经眶上锁孔入路Willis环前循环的显微解剖学研究

目的研究眶上锁孔入路下Willis环前循环的显露范围,为眶上锁孔入路治疗前循环动脉瘤提供解剖学参考依据。方法10个成人尸体头颅行眶上锁孔入路的手术解剖,手术显微镜下观察Willis环前循环的显露范围及其穿支动脉的显露情况。结果外侧可显露同侧大脑中动脉的最大范围(1.88±0.26)cm;内侧可显露对侧颈内动脉的最大范围(0.77±0.15)cm;上方可显露前交通动脉复合体最高点距前颅底平面(0.66±0.17)cm。前交通动脉的穿支数(3.10±1.20)支;A1的穿支数(6.35±2.18)支;Heubner返动脉平均(1.20±0.62)支,其中11/24起源于ACoA水平,8/24源于A2,5/24源于A1。结论眶上孔、额骨颧突、前床突、视神经及颈内动脉床突上段是眶上锁孔入路的解剖标志;眶上锁孔入路对于Willis环前循环及其穿支动脉显露良好,适用于Willis环前循环部位的动脉瘤手术。     

眉间锁孔入路手术的显微解剖学研究

目的 观察眉问锁孔入路手术的显露范围并测量相关解剖学参数,以为临床应用提供依据.方法 应用眉间锁孔入路模拟手术并结合局部解剖对12具(24侧)成年国人尸头标本进行研究.形成约3.00 cm×2.50 cm大小骨窗,于手术显微镜下观察显露范围,并测量相关解剖学参数.选择1例典型鞍区脑膜瘤患者,施行眉间锁孔入路手术,观察手术疗效及预后.结果 手术显微镜下观察骨窗显露范围.可见额极、额底、筛板、鸡冠、嗅沟、嗅柬、蝶骨平台、鞍结节、前床突、后床突、小脑幕、视交叉、视神经、颈内动脉、大脑前动脉、大脑中动脉、大脑镰、上矢状窦、胼胝体、前连合和终板等组织结构;打开终板,可见第三脑室.测量双侧眶上孔(眶上切迹)之间距离为(45.92±5.86)mm;双侧滑车上切迹之间距离为(33.14±4.23)mm;鼻额缝至双侧内眦连线距离(16.25±1.52)mm;骨窗中心点至视交叉前缘中心点距离(64.30±3.20)mm,至鞍结节中心点距离(57.38±2.72)mm,至鞍膈中心点距离(67.04±2.89)mm,至终板中心点距离(66.18±3.79)mm,至前交通动脉距离(60.64±4.61)mm.1例患者施行眉间锁孔入路肿瘤切除术,疗效满意.结论 眉间锁孔入路手术可较好地显露前颅底及鞍区中线附近的解剖结构,推荐用于前颅底和鞍区中线附近病变的手术以及前交通动脉动脉瘤的夹闭,具有切口小、骨窗小、刨伤小、额叶损伤少、嗅觉易保留等优点,但也存在并发感染、脑脊液漏的风险,且不适用于脑肿胀患者.     

额外侧前颅底锁孔入路显微解剖的临床应用

额外侧前颅底锁孔入路能够较好的显示Willis环前侧方、鞍区及其周围颅底结构,特别是鞍前、鞍旁等区域周围颅底面的解剖结构,在处理小型的嗅沟脑膜瘤、鞍结节脑膜瘤、垂体瘤、颅咽管瘤及前循环动脉瘤等病变时具有其独特的优势。额外侧前颅底锁孔入路损伤较传统的额下入路大大减小,显露范围较眶上锁孔入路更广泛,避免了传统眶上锁孔入路损伤眶上神经、额窦开放性感染等可能的并发症及对于贴近中线部位解剖结构显露的局限性。此入路对于鞍区诸结构的显露可以达到与翼点锁孔入路相当的效果,且无需磨除蝶骨嵴及过多地剥离颞肌。     

眶上锁孔入路去除眶顶的解剖学研究

目的探讨眶上锁孔入路中去除眶顶的应用价值。方法取成人尸头标本8例,模拟眶上锁孔入路并去除眶顶,比较去除眶顶前后Willis环周围血管最大显露程度、显露面积及不同深度靶点显露角度的差异。结果去除眶顶前后,前交通动脉复合体、同侧大脑中动脉的显露范围有显著性差异(P< 0.01)。在基底动脉顶端位置较高的标本中,去除眶顶有助于其显露;对鞍区其他深部结构如大脑后动脉、小脑上动脉的显露无显著性差别(P> 0.05)。去除眶顶后,手术显露面积(864.2 mm2)较去除眶顶前(494.9 mm2)明显增加;工作角度平均增加34.2%。结论去除眶顶对位置较高的前交通动脉复合体、A2段近端和位置较高的基底动脉顶端分叉部的显露有实际意义;应根据病变的特点确定是否去除眶顶。     

经眶上锁孔入路手术的解剖学研究

目的对经眶上锁孔入路手术路径的解剖学进行研究,为临床应用提供参考和指导。方法对成年国人湿性尸头标本10具共20侧进行局部分层解剖,经眶上锁孔入路模拟手术并于显微镜下观察相关解剖学结构,测量参数。对42例经眶上锁孔入路手术患者(垂体腺瘤27例,鞍结节脑膜瘤5例,颅前窝底肿瘤3例,颅咽管瘤2例,Langhan结节1例,视神经管减压3例,脑脊液漏修补1例)的临床资料进行回顾性分析,观察手术疗效及预后。结果在直径3cm的骨窗下可观察到鞍区的重要解剖结构,包括额叶底部、外侧裂内部、前床突、蝶骨嵴、眶顶、视神经管、嗅沟、嗅束、双侧视神经、同侧视束、前交通动脉、大脑前动脉、同侧颈内动脉外侧面、对侧颈内动脉内侧面、大脑中动脉、后交通动脉、脉络膜前动脉、垂体柄和鞍膈、鞍背和后床突、基底动脉顶部、双侧大脑后动脉P1段、双侧动眼神经以及脑桥上部等。测量眶上神经主干最高点至眶上缘的垂直距离为(24.49±0.96)mm。鞍膈中心点至骨窗中心点的距离为(64.57±4.63)mm,至内侧缘骨外板为(67.11±4.91)mm,至外侧缘骨外板为(66.43±4.74)mm;以到骨窗中心点距离最短。42例患者,垂体腺瘤完全切除率达81.48%(22/27);鞍结节脑膜瘤均达SimpsonⅡ级切除;颅前窝底肿瘤达近全切除;视神经管减压术有效率为100%;颅咽管瘤、Langhan结节及脑脊液漏修补手术均获满意效果。结论经眶上锁孔入路手术创伤较小,与传统手术路径相比显露范围无明显差异,适用于鞍上区和视交叉前区的肿瘤切除、视神经管减压及前循环动脉瘤夹闭等神经外科手术。     

经眉弓眶上锁孔人路鞍区手术间隙的显微解剖研究

目的 探讨经眉弓眶上锁孔入路鞍区手术间隙的显微解剖学特点及其在显微外科手术中的应用.方法 在6例新鲜成人尸头标本上,模拟经眉弓眶上锁孔入路在鞍区的手术,在内镜的辅助下或显微镜下观察鞍区手术间隙的解剖学结构.结果 在显微镜和内窥镜下,经眉弓眶上锁孔入路可较好的暴露第Ⅰ、Ⅱ间隙内部结构,内窥镜自第Ⅱ间隙进入基底池,可暴露基底动脉分叉部;此人路对第Ⅲ间隙暴露较差;对第Ⅳ间隙暴露直接,但操作空间较为受限.结论 在显微镜和内窥镜下模拟手术入路,暴露鞍区四个间隙及相关结构,能得到与标准额下入路基本相同的显露范围.     

内镜辅助眶上锁孔入路治疗垂体瘤的临床解剖学研究

目的探讨内镜辅助眶上锁孔入路治疗垂体瘤的可行性。方法21例福尔马林固定尸体头部标本用于鞍区各解剖结构,特别是垂体柄、视神经、视交叉及其供血动脉特点的观察,总结手术可利用的间隙、应保护的结构;在9例新鲜尸头上模拟进行内镜辅助眶上锁孔入路手术,进一步验证其可行性及优势。结果颈内动脉床突上段长度14.5±1.3mm(8.1～18.5mm),发向垂体柄、视神经或视交叉的穿支动脉的支数分别为:大脑前或前交通动脉3.0支(2～6支),颈内动脉2.1支(1～5支),后交通动脉3.2支(3～6支),基底动脉1.4支(1～3支)。视神经颅内段长度为11.4±2.7mm(6.1～17.6mm),第1间隙面积为44.8±3.4mm2(7.0～100.8mm2),手术可通过第1间隙或(和)第2间隙进行。结论通过眶上锁孔入路治疗向鞍上发展的垂体瘤有充足的操作空间,具有视神经、视交叉减压充分,利于保护其供血动脉的优点。     

经眉眶上锁孔入路与经翼点锁孔入路的解剖学对比研究

目的对比研究经眉弓眶上锁孔入路和经翼点锁孔入路的解剖学特点,为临床应用提供形态学基础。方法对25具成人颅骨标本进行骨性解剖学数据测量。于15具成人尸头上分别模拟经眉弓眶上锁孔入路和经翼点锁孔入路解剖,比较其切口、暴露范围及操作空间等,同时观察鞍区各间隙内的结构。结果经眉眶上锁孔入路中,颧突与同侧前床突的距离为(6.02±0.22)cm,角度为34.09°±3.19;°经翼点锁孔手术入路中,翼点与同侧前床突距离为(5.03±0.29)m m,角度为63.61°±4.78°。经统计学分析,均有显著性差异。结论两种手术入路能不同程度地暴露鞍区各个间隙内的结构。经翼点锁孔入路操作距离较短,具有良好的暴露范围和宽广的操作空间。     

眶上锁孔入路治疗基底动脉上段动脉瘤的解剖学研究及初步临床应用

目的探讨眶上锁孔入路治疗基底动脉上段动脉瘤的可行性和适应证,并报告其初步临床应用经验。方法 8具福尔马林固定的尸头标本,完成眶上锁孔入路开颅后,通过视神经颈内动脉三角(即第二间隙),观察基底动脉上段的显露,并在神经导航系统辅助下完成解剖数据测量。在临床应用中,经眶上锁孔入路夹闭基底动脉上段动脉瘤9例。结果眶上锁孔入路通过第二间隙可显露基底动脉上1/3段,双侧小脑上动脉和大脑后动脉(P1段和部分P2段)。可观察到的基底动脉最低点与后床突水平间的直线距离为(5.0±1.2)mm,磨除后床突,距离可显著增加(3.4±1.0)mm(P0.05)。可观察到的基底动脉延长线最远点到颅前窝的垂直距离为(12.4±2.3)mm,去除眉弓及部分眶顶,距离可显著增加(3.3±1.2)mm(P0.05)。9例基底动脉上段动脉瘤通过眶上锁孔入路成功夹闭,术后随访6～12个月,病人恢复好。结论眶上锁孔入路可显露不高于颅前窝水平10mm,不低于后床突水平5mm的基底动脉。磨除后床突和切除眉弓及部分眶顶可分别增加基底动脉近端、远端的显露。眶上锁孔入路中,经第二间隙夹闭基底动脉上段动脉瘤是手术最佳路径。     

经眉弓眶上锁孔入路鞍区手术间隙的显微解剖研究

目的探讨经眉弓眶上锁孔入路鞍区手术间隙的显微解剖学特点及其在显微外科手术中的应用。方法在6例新鲜成人尸头标本上,模拟经眉弓眶上锁孔入路在鞍区的手术,在内镜的辅助下或显微镜下观察鞍区手术间隙的解剖学结构。结果在显微镜和内窥镜下,经眉弓眶上锁孔入路可较好的暴露第Ⅰ、Ⅱ间隙内部结构,内窥镜自第Ⅱ间隙进入基底池,可暴露基底动脉分叉部;此入路对第Ⅲ间隙暴露较差;对第Ⅳ间隙暴露直接,但操作空间较为受限。结论在显微镜和内窥镜下模拟手术入路,暴露鞍区四个间隙及相关结构,能得到与标准额下入路基本相同的显露范围。     

Epilepsy and anomalies of neuronal migration: MRI and clinical aspects

Neuronal migration disorders are the result of disturbed brain development. In such disorders, neurons are abnormally located. In diagnosing these conditions, magnetic resonance imaging is superior to any other imaging technique. This enables us to improve our knowledge of the clinical correlates of neuronal migration. With reference to migrational disorder, a retrospective study of all 303 patients with epileptic seizures referred for magnetic resonance imaging during a 3-year period was performed, 13 patients (aged 12-41, mean age 27) were identified. They represent 4.3% of the entire study group. Of the patients with known epilepsy, 6.7% and of the mentally retarded, 13.7% had migrational disorders. Four patients had schizencephaly as the dominant finding, one was classified as hemimegalencephaly, 2 had isolated heterotopias, and 6 had localized pachy- and/or poly-microgyria. The clinical pictures are complex. Ectopias of grey matter are recognised foci of epilepsy, but from an epileptological and a clinical viewpoint little attention has been given to these disorders. The present study shows that malmigration is not rare in epilepsy patients, especially not in the mentally retarded.     

Classification of methods in transcranial Electrical Stimulation (tES) and evolving strategy from historical approaches to contemporary innovations

Transcranial Electrical Stimulation (tES) encompasses all methods of non-invasive current application to the brain used in research and clinical practice. We present the first comprehensive and technical review, explaining the evolution of tES in both terminology and dosage over the past 100 years of research to present day. Current transcranial Pulsed Current Stimulation (tPCS) approaches such as Cranial Electrotherapy Stimulation (CES) descended from Electrosleep (ES) through Cranial Electro-stimulation Therapy (CET), Transcerebral Electrotherapy (TCET), and NeuroElectric Therapy (NET) while others like Transcutaneous Cranial Electrical Stimulation (TCES) descended from Electroanesthesia (EA) through Limoge, and Interferential Stimulation. Prior to a contemporary resurgence in interest, variations of transcranial Direct Current Stimulation were explored intermittently, including Polarizing current, Galvanic Vestibular Stimulation (GVS), and Transcranial Micropolarization. The development of these approaches alongside Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) and pharmacological developments are considered. Both the roots and unique features of contemporary approaches such as transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation (tACS) and transcranial Random Noise Stimulation (tRNS) are discussed. Trends and incremental developments in electrode montage and waveform spanning decades are presented leading to the present day. Commercial devices, seminal conferences, and regulatory decisions are noted. We conclude with six rules on how increasing medical and technological sophistication may now be leveraged for broader success and adoption of tES.     

Hepatic Considerations in the Use of Antiepileptic Drugs

Summary: Virtually all of the major antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) can cause hepatotoxicity, although fatal hepatic reactions are rare. The mechanisms, incidences, and risk profiles for such reactions differ from drug to drug. With carbamazepine and phenytoin, hepatotoxicity may be due to drug hypersensitivity. Although the profiles of patients at risk have not been well-defined for these two antiepileptic drugs, it would appear from reports in the literature that older adolescents and adults are at higher risk than children of developing serious or fatal hepatotoxicity. Once hepatotoxicity develops, mortality rates are 10–38% with phenytoin and 25% for carbamazepine. The risk profile for valproate fatal hepatotoxicity has been more clearly defined. Those at primary risk of fatal hepatic dysfunction are children under the age of 2 years who are receiving multiple anticonvulsants and also have significant medical problems in addition to severe epilepsy. The risk is considerably lower for patients over the age of 2 years on valproate monotherapy. In contrast to the risk profile with other AEDs, adults receiving valproate as monotherapy have the lowest risk of hepatotoxicity. Fatal hepatic dysfunction coincident with valproate may be the result of aberrant drug metabolism. Concomitant use of AEDs that induce microsomal P450 enzymes (e.g., phenytoin and phenobarbital) may enhance the production of a toxic metabolite, and hence the greater risk of hepatotoxicity with polypharmacy.     

Vascular Malformations and Epilepsy: Clinical Considerations and Basic Mechanisms

Summary: Vascular malformations (VMs) are associated with epilepsy. The natural history of the various VMs, clinical presentation, and tendency to provoke epilepsy determine treatment strategies. Investigations have probed the mechanisms of epileptogenesis associated with these lesions. Electrophysiologic changes are associated with epileptogenic cortex adjacent to VMs. Putative pathophysiologic mechanisms of epileptogenesis include neuronal cell loss, glial proliferation and abnormal glial physiology, altered neurotransmitter levels, free radical formation, and aberrant second messenger physiology.     

Neonatal Seizures: Problems in Diagnosis and Classification

Summary: The clinical identification of neonatal seizures is critical for the recognition of brain dysfunction; however, diagnosis is often difficult because of the poorly organized and varied nature of these behaviors. Current classification systems are limited in their ability to communicate motor, autonomic, and electroencephalo-graphic features of seizures precisely and to provide a basis for uniform effective diagnosis, therapy, and determination of prognosis. Recent investigations of neonates, utilizing bedside electroencephalographic/polygraphic/ video monitoring techniques, have provided the basis for improved diagnosis and classification of seizures in the newborn. These studies have demonstrated that not all clinical phenomena currently considered to be seizures require electrocortical epileptiform activity for their initiation or elaboration. In addition, the specific clinical character of the phenomena considered to be seizures, the clinical state of the infant, and the character of the EEG indicate the probable pathophysiological mechanisms involved and suggest probable etiologies, prognosis, and therapy. Similarities between animal models that demonstrate reflex physiology and neonates with motor automatisms and tonic posturing suggest that these clinical behaviors may not be epileptic in origin but, rather, primitive movements of progression and posture mediated by brainstem mechanisms. Although not all clinical behaviors currently considered to be neonatal seizures may have similar pathophysiological mechanisms, they are clinically significant because they all indicate brain dysfunction.     

Valproate Monotherapy in the Management of Generalized and Partial Seizures

Summary: For decades, therapeutic tradition has promoted the concept of polypharmacy in the management of epilepsy. In recent years, however, studies have shown that, for most patients, monotherapy can provide comparable or better seizure control than administration of multiple anticonvulsants, while diminishing the potential for adverse reactions, drug interactions, and poor compliance. Valproate is an important monotherapeutic agent that is highly effective in the control of idiopathic primary and secondarily generalized epilepsies, and partial seizures that do not generalize. Comparative studies have found that valproate is at least as effective as phenytoin and carbamazepine in the treatment of generalized and partial seizures. Given the similar efficacy, other factors such as pharmacokinetics and side effects may therefore determine anticonvulsant selection for monotherapy.     

Un nouveau cadre conceptuel de travail pour la psychiatrie

In an attempt to place psychiatric thinking and the training of future psychiatrists more centrally into the context of modern biology, the author outlines the beginnings of a new intellectual framework for psychiatry that derives from current biological thinking about the relationship of mind to brain. The purpose of this framework is twofold. First, it is designed to emphasize that the professional requirements for future psychiatrists will demand a greater knowledge of the structure and functioning of the brain than is currently available in most training programs. Second, it is designed to illustrate that the unique domain which psychiatry occupies within academic medicine, the analysis of the interaction between social and biological determinants of behavior, can best be studied by also having a full understanding of the biological components of behavior.     

Carbamazepine Efficacy and Utilization in Children

Summary: Carbamazepine is effective for preventing partial and generalized tonic-clonic seizures in children. Although absence epilepsies are more common in children than adults, an estimated 80% of children with epilepsy have seizure types or epilepsies that are potentially responsive to carbamazepine. The differential diagnosis of ictal staring is an especially important issue in children because absence and atypical absence seizures are more prevalent in children than adults. Age-related pharmacokinetic differences and drug interactions are major considerations in children. On average, children have higher clearance rates of carbamazepine, shorter half-lives, and higher ratios of carbamazepine-10, 11-epoxide to carbamazepine than adults. In addition, children with severe epilepsy are more likely to require multiple-drug therapy, which can lead to complex drug interactions. When carbamazepine is administered along with valproate, drug protein binding interactions can cause intermittent side effects.