Encopresis: developmental, behavioral and physiological considerations for treatment

Encopresis (soiling in the clothing) is a complex condition presenting a treatment challenge for health care providers. It is a disruptive event, placing both the child and family at risk for crisis. The definition, incidence, etiology and relevant medical, behavioral and developmental theory are discussed. A multi-dimensional encopretic evaluation and management model is presented that addresses encopresis at developmental, behavioral and physiological levels. This system includes a detailed historical, demographic, behavioral and school-performance profile of the child; appropriate physical and laboratory examinations; and a treatment approach that incorporates bowel evacuation, a high-fiber diet, techniques of behavior modification, and maintenance on either contingent rectal cathartics or oral laxatives. If there are significant behavioral concerns and/or the family is dysfunctional, collaborative psychiatric management can be arranged.     

Encopresis

Retentive (impacted) and nonretentive encopresis should be separated because the treatment for each type is radically different. The rectal examination is the definitive test. Children with retentive encopresis need enemas, stool softeners, and mandatory sitting on the toilet; children with nonretentive soiling usually respond to behavioral management.     

Reflexology in the management of encopresis and chronic constipation

Encopresis or faecal incontinence in children is an extremely distressing condition that is usually secondary to chronic constipation/stool withholding. Traditional management with enemas may add to the child's distress. This study investigated the efficacy of treating patients with encopresis and chronic constipation with reflexology. An observational study was carried out of 50 children between three and 14 years of age who had a diagnosis of encopresis/chronic constipation. The children received six sessions of 30-minutes of reflexology to their feet. With the help of their parents they completed questionnaires on bowel motions and soiling patterns before, during and after the treatment. A further questionnaire was completed by parents pre and post treatment on their attitude towards reflexology. Forty-eight of the children completed the sessions. The number of bowel motions increased and the incidence of soiling decreased. Parents were keen to try the reflexology and were satisfied with the effect of reflexology on their child's condition. It appears that reflexology has been an effective method of treating encopresis and constipation over a six-week period in this cohort of patients.     

Predicting trajectories of behavioral adjustment in children diagnosed with acute lymphoblastic leukemia

Purpose

Previous research showed that children with cancer are at risk for developing behavioral adjustment problems after successful treatment; however, the course of adjustment remains unclear. This study focuses on adjustment trajectories of children during treatment for acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) and aims to distinguish subgroups of patients showing different trajectories during active treatment, and to identify sociodemographic, medical, and psychosocial predictors of the distinct adjustment trajectories.

Methods

In a multicenter longitudinal study, 108 parents of a child (response rate 80 %) diagnosed with ALL were assessed during induction treatment (T0), after induction/consolidation treatment (T1), and after end of treatment (T2). Trajectories of child behavioral adjustment (Child Behavior Checklist; CBCL) were tested with latent class growth modeling (LCGM) analyses.

Results

For internalizing behavior, a three-trajectory model was found: a group that experienced no problems (60 %), a group that experienced only initial problems (30 %), and a group that experienced chronic problems (10 %). For externalizing behavior, a three-trajectory model was also found: a group that experienced no problems (83 %), a group that experienced chronic problems (12 %), and a group that experienced increasing problems (5 %). Only parenting stress and baseline QoL (cancer related) were found to contribute uniquely to adjustment trajectories.

Conclusions

The majority of the children (77 %) showed no or transient behavioral problems during the entire treatment as reported by parents. A substantial group (23 %) shows maladaptive trajectories of internalizing behavioral problems and/or externalizing behavioral problems. Screening for risk factors for developing problems might be helpful in early identification of these children.

     

A Prospective Study of the Safety and Effectiveness of Droperidol in Children for Prehospital Acute Behavioral Disturbance

Study objective: Although uncommon, children (<16 years) with acute behavioral disturbance are a significant issue for emergency medical service providers. In this study, we aimed to investigate the safety and effectiveness of droperidol in children with prehospital acute behavioral disturbance. Methods: This was a prospective observational study over 1 year investigating the use of droperidol (0.1–0.2?mg/kg) for children (< 16 years) with acute behavioral disturbance. Inclusion criteria for acute behavioral disturbance were defined by a sedation assessment tool score of ≥2 determined by the attending paramedic. The primary outcome was the proportion of adverse effects (need for airway intervention, oxygen saturation <90% and/or respiratory rate <12, systolic blood pressure <90?mmHg, sedation assessment tool score of ?3 and dystonic reactions). Secondary outcomes included time to sedation (sedation assessment tool score decreased by 2 or more, or a score of zero), requirement for additional sedation, failure to sedate and proportion of sedation success defined as the number of patients successfully sedated who did not suffer any adverse events or receive additional sedation. Results: There were 96 patients (males 51 [53%], median age 14 years [range 7–15 years]) who presented on 102 occasions over the one year study period. Self-harm and/or harm to others was the commonest (74/105 [70%]) cause of acute behavioral disturbance followed by alcohol (16/105 [15%]). There were 9 adverse events in 8 patients (8/102 [8%]; 95% confidence intervals [CI]: 3–13%) Five patients had hypotension, all asymptomatic and only one required treatment; 2 dystonic reactions managed with benztropine and one patient with respiratory depression. Median time to sedation was 14?min (interquartile range (IQR): 10–20?min; range: 3–85?min). There was no requirement for prehospital additional sedation (0/102 [0%]; 95% CI: 0–4%) and additional sedation in the first hour of arrival to hospital was required by 4 patients (4/102 [4%]; 95% CI: 1–10%). Overall successful sedation was achieved in 89 (87%) patients. Conclusions: The use of droperidol in children for acute behavioral disturbance in the prehospital setting is both safe and effective.     

经肛门Ⅰ期根治手术治疗儿童先天性巨结肠临床疗效分析

【目的】探讨儿童先天性巨结肠经肛门Ⅰ期根治手术的临床应用前景。【方法】总结儿童先天性巨结肠经肛门Ⅰ期根治术病例23例,并与23例腹腔镜下巨结肠根治术及23例开腹巨结肠根治术病人的临床资料进行比较分析。【结果】经肛门Ⅰ期根治术组全部治愈,无死亡病例,1例轻度粪污,1例轻度便秘,手术打击小于其他两种术式,疗效与腹腔镜下巨结肠根治术相当,优于开腹手术。【结论】经肛门Ⅰ期巨结肠根治术是治疗儿童期先天性巨结肠的良好术式,与常规开腹手术及经腹腔镜手术组比较,微创优势明显,并发症少,值得临床推广应用。     

Treating Encopresis in People with Intellectual Disabilities: a Literature Review

The purpose of the present paper was to review research studies of faecal soiling (not linked to anatomical anomalies) in people with intellectual disabilities. The research studies were identified through: (1) computerized searches of the PSYCLIT and MEDICAL EXPRESS databases for journal articles published between 1975 and 2000; and (2) a hand search of the reference lists of the articles found through the computerized process. Twenty‐one studies were reviewed: 13 dealt with the treatment of non‐retentive faecal soiling (i.e. soiling occurring in the absence of constipation); and eight were on retentive faecal soiling (i.e. soiling occurring in the presence of constipation). Treatment and follow‐up data tended to be fairly encouraging, with clear performance changes. An analysis of the results, in relation to the treatment conditions and designs of the studies, underlined several procedural and practical questions. Possible research initiatives to clarify those questions are presented.     

Distraction for children of different ages who undergo repeated needle sticks

A distraction intervention for pain management and behavioral distress was implemented for six children with chronic illnesses and their parents as the children underwent repeated needle sticks. The children ranged in age from two to eight years. Several different cognitive distractors were used for the children based on their respective developmental levels. The needle stick procedures during which treatment was implemented included intramuscular injections, implanted port accesses, and intravenous placements. Nine sessions of distraction were provided in which a therapist taught parents to coach their children to use distraction techniques. Dependent measures included the child's behavioral distress and heart rate, parent ratings of the child's fear before the procedure, parent self-ratings of feeling upset during the procedure, and nurse ratings of the child's cooperation. Reductions in child behavioral distress during the distraction treatment program were observed in five out of the six cases. Concomitant improvements in parental reports of child distress, nurse estimates of child cooperation, and parents' self-report of feeling upset during the medical procedures also were found. Follow-up data were available for one of the successfully treated children. His improvements were maintained for both intramuscular injections and portacatheter accesses over 16 weeks without therapist involvement. [copy ] 2002 by Association of Pediatric Oncology Nurses     

下丘脑错构瘤行为异常患儿的安全防护

目的探讨下丘脑错构瘤行为异常患儿的护理措施，防止患儿在住院期间发生意外伤害。方法观察2004年1月至2008年10月收治的下丘脑错构瘤行为异常患儿的临床表现，分析、制定相应的护理措施，建立安全管理制度，对患儿家长进行安全教育，规范护理人员行为规范。结果16例行为异常患儿中发生攻击性行为毁物1例，过分活跃患儿从病房走失1例，其他患儿均无意外发生，患儿及家长对护理工作满意度为100．00％。结论通过安全管理制度的建立与实施，可以预防患儿发生意外伤害。     

综合干预学习困难儿童的疗效评估

背景学习困难儿童不仅有认知能力的偏异和智力结构发展不平衡,还伴有情绪和行为问题.目的探讨综合干预对学习困难儿童认知、心理、情绪等多方面的干预效应.设计以患儿为观察对象的病例分析.单位福建医科大学附属协和医院儿内科.对象选择1998-07/2001-07福建医科大学附属协和医院儿童医学心理专科门诊就诊的6～12岁儿童,其学习困难的诊断符合ICD-10中特殊学习技能发育障碍的诊断标准,其中智商＞70是诊断学习困难的必备条件.同时予以排除情绪障碍、智力缺陷、多动症、视听觉障碍及脑器质性疾病,并经过神经心理学专业1名教授确诊.自愿参加认知训练、行为干预、感觉综合训练,疗程满1年的患儿为观察人群.治疗技师与参与儿童比例为12,时间为90～120 min/次,每周二三次,24次为1个疗程,连续干预4次即1年.31名患儿进入最后的统计分析,男24例,女7例,平均年龄为(7.7±1.2)岁,平均智商87.5±8.6.方法应用认知训练、行为干预、感觉综合训练相结合的方法,治疗6～12岁学习困难儿童31例,连续干预1年.使用联合型瑞文测验测定儿童推理能力,用拜瑞视觉动作统整发展测验测评儿童的视觉-动作的统合能力,用视觉注意数字划消测验和听觉注意广度和记忆顺背和倒背测评儿童注意力.用Achenbach儿童行为量表评定行为问题,用conners儿童行为问卷评定多动指数.主要观察指标干预前后患儿推理能力、视觉-动作统合能力、注意力及心理行为的变化.结果31例患儿进入1年后结果分析,无脱落.①干预后,儿童的推理能力得分、视觉-动作统合能力得分显著高于干预前(瑞文测验干预前87.51±8.64,干预后90.03±8.70,t=-9.610,P＜0.001;拜瑞视一动统合测验干预前6.75±1.74,干预后8.27±1.94,t=-9.002,P＜0.001).②视觉注意力数字划消测验错误率明显降低,听觉注意广度和记忆也显著提高(数字划消干预前15.90±20.11,干预1年2.74±3.67;记忆的顺背干预前7.70±1.60,干预1年11.23±1 23;记忆的倒背干预前3.52±0.93干预1年6.97±0.16,P＜0.01).③conners量表多动症总分在干预后的3个月、6个月、1年均有不同程度的下降,与干预前比较差异显著(干预前22.65±3.53,干预3个月18.87±4.14,干预6个月15.65±3.92,干预1年12.65±3.36,t=7.35-15.36,P＜0.01).Achenbach儿童行为量表评定心理行为9项因子分在不同疗程明显下降.④学习成绩提高达87%(26/31).结论认知训练及行为干预和感觉综合综合干预学习困难儿童,其针对性综合疗效可改善学习困难儿童认知、心理、情绪等多方面的症状,使视功能,听功能和大脑功能均得到刺激和提高.     

Fecal incontinence. Effective nonsurgical treatments

Management of the patient with fecal soiling begins with a careful evaluation of possible contributing factors, followed by anorectal examination, neurologic and psychosocial testing, and workup for chronic diarrhea, if present. In many patients, these procedures should be supplemented by radiologic and manometric studies to determine if structural or functional anorectal abnormalities are present. Therapeutic approaches include behavioral, pharmacologic, and surgical methods, which should be carefully considered in relation to the underlying cause of incontinence. For the experienced physician, therapy can be gratifyingly effective in many patients with fecal soiling and can dramatically improve their quality of life.     

小儿应用空气压缩泵雾化吸入的心理分析及护理对策

目的探讨小儿应用空气压缩泵雾化吸入的护理方法。方法对应用空气压缩泵雾化吸入治疗小儿进行心理辅助，医疗护理。结果应用空气压缩泵雾化吸入治疗小儿7154例次，通过心理辅助，临床护理，顺利完成雾化治疗7123例次，中途停止雾化吸入治疗31例次，治疗依从性为99％。结论恰当的心理护理及临床护理有助于小儿顺利完成雾化吸入治疗。     

创伤聚焦单元干预听力障碍和智力障碍儿童心理应激障碍的研究

目的 研究创伤聚焦单元（TF-CBT）干预听力障碍、智力障碍儿童心理应激障碍（PTSD）的疗效。 方法 选取符合纳入标准的听力障碍、智力障碍儿童资料104例,按随机数字表法分为苏南听障组28例、苏南智障组26例、苏北听障组24例、苏北智障组26例,分别给予TF-CBT干预,并于干预1个月和干预3个月后评估各组儿童干预疗效并进行比较。 结果 各组儿童TF-CBT干预1个月或干预3个月后显效率均超过60%,其中听障组内苏北儿童干预3个月后的显效率较苏南儿童明显增加(P<0.05),智障组内苏南儿童干预3个月后显效率较干预1个月后者亦明显增加(P<0.05)。 结论 TF-CBT干预听力障碍和智力障碍儿童PTSD有效,听障儿童中苏北儿童干预3个月后较苏南儿童疗效更好,苏南智障儿童则干预3个月较干预1个月疗效更优。     

抽动障碍儿童141例行为特征的研究

目的 对抽动障碍(TD)患儿行为特征进行全面研究,完善TD诊疗方案,提供新的诊疗思路.方法 本课题采用Achenbach儿童行为量表(CBCL)对明确诊断为TD的患儿进行行为特征研究.结果 行为特征研究发现,TD男童与正常儿童行为因子相比均有显著差异(P<0.01).从4~16岁,TD男童的外向性评分逐渐高于内向性评分;TD女童则除性问题、违纪、残忍因子外与正常儿童相比差异均有统计学意义(P<0.01),且内向性评分明显高于外向性评分.结论 TD患儿具有广泛的行为问题,男童以外向行为为主,而女童则以内向行为为主.     

Homeopathy in acute otitis media in children: treatment effect or spontaneous resolution?

The conventional antibiotic treatment of acute otitis media (AOM) faces a number of problems, including antibiotic resistance. Homeopathy has been shown to be capable of treating AOM successfully. As AOM has a high rate of spontaneous resolution, a trial to prove any treatment-effect has to demonstrate very fast resolution of symptoms. The purpose of this study was to find out how many children with AOM are relieved of pain within 12 h after the beginning of homeopathic treatment, making additional measures unnecessary. Two hundred and thirty children with AOM received a first individualized homeopathic medicine in the paediatric office. If pain-reduction was not sufficient after 6 h, a second (different) homeopathic medicine was given. After a further 6 h, children who had not reached pain control were started on antibiotics. Pain control was achieved in 39% of the patients after 6 h, another 33% after 12 h. This resolution rate is 2.4 times faster than in placebo controls. There were no complications observed in the study group, and compared to conventional treatment the approach was 14% cheaper.     

Prehospital countershock treatment of pediatric asystole

Prehospital care was retrospectively reviewed in 117 pulseless nonbreathing (PNB) pediatric patients (0 to 18 years of age) to determine the effects of immediate countershock treatment of asystole. Of 90 (77%) children with an initial rhythm of asystole, 49 (54%) received countershock treatment. Rhythm change occurred in ten (20%) of the asystolic children who received countershock treatment. Three of the countershocked asystolic children were successfully resuscitated, but none survived. Rhythm change occurred in nine (22%) of the asystolic children not countershocked. Six were successfully resuscitated, and one survived. The two groups (countershocked asystole v noncountershocked asystole) did not differ significantly in age, sex, witnessed arrest, witnessed arrest with bystander basic life support (BLS), prehospital endotracheal intubation, both intubation and vascular access success, or diagnosis. However, prehospital vascular access was successfully established in a significantly greater number of countershocked patients (P less than .05). The mean times to the scene, at the scene, and to the hospital for the countershocked v noncountershocked asystolic patients were 6.2, 23.8, and 6.1 v 5.9, 14.7 and 7.0 minutes. The mean time at the scene was significantly greater in the countershock group (P less than .001). The successful performance of prehospital endotracheal intubation was significantly associated with rhythm change (P less than .05). Patients age, witnessed arrest, witnessed arrest with bystander BLS, successful establishment of prehospital vascular access, diagnosis, and countershock treatment were not significantly associated with rhythm change. In conclusion, prehospital countershock treatment prolonged prehospital care time and was not associated with rhythm change in asystolic children. Therefore, prehospital countershock treatment of asystolic children is not recommended.     

Comorbidity of psychiatric and behavioral disorders in pediatric migraine

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether behavioral and psychiatric disorders occur more frequently in school-age children with migraine headache. To also elucidate treatment response related to comorbid psychiatric or behavioral diagnosis. BACKGROUND: Recurrent migraine headaches are common in school-age children. Concurrent behavioral or psychiatric diagnoses could significantly impact headache frequency, severity, and response to treatment. METHODS: Healthy children from 6 to 17 years of age presenting to our headache clinic with migraine headache according to International Headache Society (IHS) criteria were identified. Parents/guardians were asked to complete the Child Symptom Inventory, 4th edition (CSI-4) after written informed consent. Children with positive rating scales underwent psychological interviews for confirmatory diagnosis. Results were compared to controls. Headache patients were assigned our usual treatment paradigm. Response regarding headache frequency was assessed at 3 months. RESULTS: A total of 47 patients were diagnosed with migraine headaches. The mean age was 10.55 years. Thirty controls were identified. After completing the CSI-4 and confirmatory psychological interview, 14 of 47 headache patients fulfilled Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM-4) criteria for a psychiatric or behavioral disorder. Oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) was significantly represented among children with migraine compared to the control group of children. Headache patients improved significantly post-treatment regarding their headache frequencies regardless of comorbid psychiatric or behavioral disorder. No significant differences were noted between boys and girls regarding diagnoses or treatment outcome. CONCLUSION: ODD was a significant comorbidity in our headache population. Although families complained of significant behavioral symptomatology in their children, most of these symptoms did not qualify their children for a psychiatric diagnosis and may be related to the stressors of headache on social/school disruption.     

How do children with autism spectrum disorders express pain? A comparison with developmentally delayed and typically developing children

There is a lack of knowledge about pain reactions in children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD), who have often been considered as insensitive to pain. The objective of this study was to describe the facial, behavioral and physiological reactions of children with ASD during venipuncture and to compare them to the reactions of children with an intellectual disability and nonimpaired control children. We also examined the relation between developmental age and pain reactions. The sample included 35 children with ASD, 32 children with an intellectual disability, and 36 nonimpaired children. The children were videotaped during venipuncture and their heart rate was recorded. Facial reactions were assessed using the Child Facial Coding System (CFCS) and behavioral reactions were scored using the Noncommunicating Children’s Pain Checklist (NCCPC). A linear mixed-effects model showed that children’s reactions increased between baseline and venipuncture and decreased between the end of venipuncture and the recovery period. There was no significant difference between groups regarding the amount of facial, behavioral and physiological reactions. However, behavioral reactions seemed to remain high in children with ASD after the end of the venipuncture, in contrast with children in the 2 other groups. Moreover, we observed a significant decrease in pain expression with age in nonimpaired children, but no such effect was found regarding children with ASD. The data reveal that children with ASD displayed a significant pain reaction in this situation and tend to recover more slowly after the painful experience. Improvement in pain assessment and management in this population is necessary.