大电导钙激活钾通道在高血压病中的研究进展

大电导钙激活钾通道（BKCa）是血管平滑肌细胞（VSMCs）上表达最丰富的钾通道,对维持VSMCs的膜电位及血管收缩和舒张的动态平衡具有重要的调节作用。BKCa通道的激活可使细胞膜发生超极化,从而抑制电压依赖性钙通道的激活和钙离子内流,导致平滑肌舒张。对高血压患者的观察和高血压动物模型的研究发现,高血压血管张力升高时平滑肌细胞膜表面钾离子和钙离子通道表达和功能均发生异常,因此,有人推测高血压是离子通道重构导致平滑肌细胞去极化的结果。本文主要综述近年来BKCa通道在高血压病中的研究进展。     

大电导钙激活钾通道与大动脉血管舒缩功能研究进展

大动脉血管平滑肌细胞膜上存在许多大电导钙激活钾(BK_(Ca))通道,其在维持细胞正常生理活动及血管舒缩功能中起重要作用。研究发现,当细胞膜去极化和(或)细胞内钙离子浓度增加时可激活BK_(Ca)通道,使其开放,细胞内钾离子外流增加,导致细胞膜超极化,阻断电压依赖性钙通道,钙离子内流减少,引起血管平滑肌舒张。在高血压、糖尿病、尿毒症、缺氧、心力衰竭和老化等许多生理、病理情况下,BK_(Ca)通道结构、功能及门控特性发生改变,从而影响其正常生理功能以及对血管舒缩功能的调节。本文主要综述近年来BK_(Ca)通道在大动脉血管平滑肌细胞舒缩调节机制中的研究进展。     

大电导钙离子激活钾通道与糖尿病冠状动脉病变

钙离子（Ca^2＋）激活钾通道根据电导大小和药理特性的差异可分为3类：即大电导ca^2＋激活钾通道（BK）、中电导Ca^2＋激活钾通道（IK）和小电导Ca^2＋激活钾通道（SK），其中BK通道因其对血管调节作用较大且分布广泛而备受关注^[1].BK通道广泛存在于兴奋和非兴奋细胞，在血管平滑肌细胞（VSMCs）膜上表达尤为丰富，不仅参与细胞膜电位的。     

大电导钙激活钾通道的增龄变化及与高血压的关系

高血压是危害人类健康的一大杀手，其发病机制一直是医学界关注和讨论的热点。近年来随着“膜学说”的发展，钾通道受到越来越多的关注和研究。在平滑肌细胞膜上的5种钾通道中，以大电导钙激活钾通道（BKCa）对血管张力和神经元的兴奋性影响最明显。BKCa的增龄变化在高血压形成中的作用已被诸多实验证实，且两者之间可能存在相互促进的关系。本文着重就BKCa的增龄变化对高血压形成和发展的影响作一简要阐述。     

平滑肌细胞钙离子相关通道与血管重构性疾病

血管重构性疾病形成和发展的根本原因之一是血管平滑肌细胞(vascular smooth muscle cells,VSMC）发生表型转化（由收缩型转变为合成型）,丧失收缩功能而获得增殖、迁移的能力。在此过程中,VSMC上多种钙离子相关通道:如L-型钙离子通道（L-Ca通道）、瞬时受体电位通道（TRPC）、三磷酸肌醇受体(IP3R)通道及钙激活的钾(KCa)通道等发生功能、数量和通道结构上的改变。本文关注的是不同离子通道的相应变化,以期对该类型疾病的发病机制及可能的药物治疗提供理论的依据。     

钙激活钾通道在血管平滑肌细胞增殖中的作用

在人体血管生理性生长的各个阶段，均存在血管平滑肌正常增殖，而在高血压、动脉粥样硬化等病理过程中，则表现出血管平滑肌的异常增生。在这些病理变化中，血管平滑肌细胞的增生受许多因素的调节，其中钙激活钾通道（KCa）的活性改变是最重要的影响因素之一，KCa已被证实在细胞增殖中扮演重要角色。研究发现，中电导KCa（IKCa）在增生型血管平滑肌中的表达显著增加，一些研究还发现大电导KCa（BKCa）活性改变在血管平滑肌增殖的早期起作用，现对KCa在血管平滑肌增殖中的研究进展做一综述。     

血管紧张素Ⅱ通过抑制人心房成纤维细胞BKCa通道诱导心房纤维化

目的 探讨在血管紧张素Ⅱ(AngⅡ)诱导心房纤维化的过程中,大电导钙激活钾通道(BKCa通道)的作用机制。方法 通过组织块贴壁法获取原代人心房成纤维细胞,使用免疫荧光染色进行鉴定。用浓度为500 nmol/L的AngⅡ处理人心房成纤维细胞24 h,实时荧光定量PCR与蛋白质印迹法用于检测处理前后纤维化标志基因α-平滑肌肌动蛋白(α-SMA)、胶原蛋白Ⅰ(collagenⅠ)和胶原蛋白Ⅲ(collagenⅢ),以及BKCa通道的α与β亚基的mRNA和蛋白表达水平,全细胞膜片钳技术检测AngⅡ处理前后的BKCa通道的电流变化。结果 (1)人心房成纤维细胞经AngⅡ处理后,α-SMA、collagenⅠ和collagenⅢ的mRNA和蛋白表达水平升高;(2)经过AngⅡ处理后,BKCa通道α及β亚基mRNA和蛋白表达水平降低;(3)人心房成纤维细胞存在功能正常的BKCa通道,具有电压依赖性;(4)人心房成纤维细胞BKCa通道的宏观电流幅度在经AngⅡ处理后降低;(5)在人心房成纤维细胞上过表达BKCa通道α亚基后,纤维化标志物α-SMA、collagenⅠ和collagenⅢ的表达受到了明显...     

雌激素对高血压人体肠系膜动脉平滑肌细胞大电导钙激活钾通道的作用研究

目的 研究雌激素（E）对非高血压（NH）及原发性高血压（EH）人体肠系膜动脉平滑肌细胞（HMASMC）大电导钙激活钾通道（BKCa channels）及自发性瞬时外向电流（STOCs）的作用,探讨雌激素在NH及EH下对该通道作用的差异性.方法 急性酶分离法分离获取单个HMASMC,采用全细胞穿孔膜片钳技术记录该细胞上的BKCa和STOCs.结果 雌激素可明显激活NH组HMASMC上的BKCa和STOCs,在测试电压范围内,雌激素使膜电位从0到＋60 mV时BKCa的电流密度均显著性增加,在0和＋60 mV时其电流密度分别从（1.95±0.39）pA/pF、（15.40±4.27）pA/pF增加到（2.81±0.84）pA/pF（P＜0.05,25例）、（26.55±6.24）pA/pF（P＜0.01,25例）,其中0 mV时增加了0.44倍,＋60 mV时增加了0.72倍;电位为-20 mV时STOCs的幅度和频率分别从（7.920±2.031）pA、（3.15±0.79）Hz增加到（12.92±3.41）pA（P＜0.05,25例）、（4.41±0.96）Hz（P＜0.01,25例）,其中幅度增加了0.63倍,频率增加了0.40倍.而EH组在测试的-60到＋50 mV电压范围,雌激素没有这种显著性激活作用,在0和＋60 mV时其电流密度分别从（1.34±0.43）pA/pF、（4.91±1.40）pA/pF增加到（1.53±0.55）pA/pF（P＞0.05,14例）、（8.04±2.0）pA/pF（P＜0.05,14例）,其中0 mV时增加了0.14倍,＋60 mV时增加了0.63倍;在电位为-20 mV时STOCs的幅度和频率分别从（5.39±1.93）pA、（0.75±0.37）Hz增加到（6.70±1.06）pA（P＞0.05,14例）、（2.34±0.98）Hz（P＜0.05,14例）,其中幅度增加了0.24倍,频率增加了2.12倍.结论 雌激素对NH组HMASMC上的BKCa和STOCs有明显的激活作用,而在EH组这种激活作用显著降低,由此推测EH组HMASMC对雌激素的反应性较NH组低,这种差异性将为雌激素合理应用于临床提供有力的实验依据. 关键词：高血压;雌激素;人体肠系膜动脉;平滑肌细胞;自发性瞬时外向电流;大电导钙激活钾通道     

肾动脉平滑肌细胞BKCa变化对自发性高血压大鼠肾血管重构及肾小球滤过率的影响

目的探讨大电导钙激活钾通道（BKCa,MaxiK）随大鼠增龄的变化及其与血压水平、肾血管重构及肾小球滤过率（GFR）的关系。方法选取雄性15、21、27周龄自发性高血压大鼠（SHR）及正常大鼠（对照组）,每组各6只,测定各组大鼠腹主动脉血压,24h尿肌酐、血肌酐,计算内生肌酐清除率（Ccr）代表GFR。利用膜片钳全细胞模式记录肾动脉血管平滑肌细胞（VSMCs）钾电流、膜电容（Cm）,计算BKCa电流值和电流密度。对肾动脉作常规病理切片和HE染色,进行形态学观察及血管内径（LD）、血管中膜厚度（MT）、中膜与内径比（MT／LD）的测量与计算。结果不同周龄SHR腹主动脉平均动脉压（MABP）均明显高于正常大鼠（P〈0．05）。SHR肾动脉VSMCsCm随周龄增加而增大,电流密度则逐渐降低,正常大鼠无此变化。SHR肾动脉LD减小及MT、MT／LD增大各周龄间有统计学意义（P均〈0．05）,正常大鼠则无明显变化。SHRGFR随增龄减小显著（P〈0．05）,正常大鼠无明显变化。SHR肾动脉VSMCsBKCa电流密度与Cm,腹主动脉MABP,肾动脉血管LD、MT、MT／LD,GFR均高度相关（r分别为-0．7962、-0．7361、0．8275、-0．7923、-0．6492、0．7612）。而正常大鼠肾动脉VSMCs BKCa电流密度与腹主动脉MABP相关（r=-0．4761）。结论BKCa电流和电流密度随周龄增加而衰减,血压水平是衰减程度的重要反应。BKCa电流密度随增龄衰减与高血压肾血管重构及GFR高度相关。     

氯离子通道活性与缺氧性肺动脉高压

在缺氧性肺血管收缩（HPV）的发病机制中，钾通道和钙通道均发挥了重要作用。但对于氯离子通道在HPV中的作用有待进一步研究。已经发现：低氧引起肺动脉内皮功能紊乱，致血管收缩物质释放增加，如内皮素、血管紧张素Ⅱ、去甲肾上腺素、ATP和组胺等，它们大多可激活钙激活性氯通道，氯离子外流，细胞膜去极化，最终使肺动脉平滑肌收缩，产生HPV。所以钙激活性氯通道的激活在HPV的发生过程中起了关键作用。氯通道阻断剂对低氧性肺动脉高压的防治可能具有一定的临床应用前景。     

Modulation of Ca2+-activated K+ channels in human vascular cells by insulin and basic fibroblast growth factor.

Insulin and basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) play an important role in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis and have been shown to have vasodilatory effects. Since modulation of vascular ion channels determines membrane potential and thereby influences essential Ca2+-dependent intracellular pathways, we have investigated the effect of insulin and bFGF on Ca2+-activated K+ channels (BKCa) in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC) and smooth muscle cells. The latter were obtained from either atherosclerotic plaques (SMCP) or from media segments (SMCM) of human coronary arteries. Using the patch-clamp technique, insulin (100 microU/ml) caused a significant increase in BKCa open-state probability in SMCP and HUVEC, whereas no significant changes were observed in SMCM. Basic FGF (30 ng/ml) revealed a significant increase in BKCa activity in HUVEC and a significant decrease in the BKCa open-state probability in SMCP, but caused no changes in SMCM. Thus, growth factors modulate vascular BKCa in a cell-type specific manner, which may be of importance concerning vasoactive and atherogenic effects of growth factors.     

Evidence for the stimulatory effect of resveratrol on Ca(2+)-activated K+ current in vascular endothelial cells

OBJECTIVE: Resveratrol, a natural phytoalexin compound, is present in grapes and wine, and it can produce vasorelaxation. However, little is known of its mechanisms of action on ionic currents in endothelial cells. METHODS: The effect of resveratrol on Ca(2+)-activated K+ currents in an endothelial cell line (HUV-EC-C) originally derived from human umbilical vein was investigated with the aid of the patch-clamp technique. RESULTS: In the whole-cell configuration, resveratrol reversibly increased the amplitude of K+ outward currents. The increase in outward current caused by resveratrol was greatly inhibited by iberiotoxin (200 nM) or paxilline (1 microM), but not by glibenclamide (10 microM), tamoxifen (10 microM), or beta-bungarotoxin (200 nM). Thus, this outward current is believed to be Ca(2+)-activated K+ current (I K(Ca)). In the inside-out configuration, bath application of resveratrol (30 microM) caused no change in the single-channel conductance, but increased the activity of large-conductance Ca(2+)-activated K+ (BKCa) channels. Resveratrol enhanced the channel activity in a concentration-dependent manner. The EC50 value for resveratrol-induced channel activity was 20 microM. The resveratrol-stimulated increase in the channel activity was independent of internal Ca2+. Resveratrol (30 microM) also shifted the activation curve of BKCa channels to less positive membrane potentials. The change in the kinetic behavior of BKCa channels caused by resveratrol in these cells in due to an increase in mean open time and a decrease in mean closed time. In a pancreatic islet endothelial cell line (MS1), resveratrol (30 microM) also increased the activity of intermediate-conductance KCa channels. CONCLUSIONS: These results provide evidence that in addition to the presence of antioxidative activity, resveratrol can also stimulate KCa channels in endothelial cells. The direct stimulation of these KCa channels by resveratrol may be responsible for its effect on the functional activities of endothelial cells.     

TRPV4 forms a novel Ca2+ signaling complex with ryanodine receptors and BKCa channels

Vasodilatory factors produced by the endothelium are critical for the maintenance of normal blood pressure and flow. We hypothesized that endothelial signals are transduced to underlying vascular smooth muscle by vanilloid transient receptor potential (TRPV) channels. TRPV4 message was detected in RNA from cerebral artery smooth muscle cells. In patch-clamp experiments using freshly isolated cerebral myocytes, outwardly rectifying whole-cell currents with properties consistent with those of expressed TRPV4 channels were evoked by the TRPV4 agonist 4alpha-phorbol 12,13-didecanoate (4alpha-PDD) (5 micromol/L) and the endothelium-derived arachidonic acid metabolite 11,12 epoxyeicosatrienoic acid (11,12 EET) (300 nmol/L). Using high-speed laser-scanning confocal microscopy, we found that 11,12 EET increased the frequency of unitary Ca2+ release events (Ca2+ sparks) via ryanodine receptors located on the sarcoplasmic reticulum of cerebral artery smooth muscle cells. EET-induced Ca2+ sparks activated nearby sarcolemmal large-conductance Ca2+-activated K+ (BKCa) channels, measured as an increase in the frequency of transient K+ currents (referred to as "spontaneous transient outward currents" [STOCs]). 11,12 EET-induced increases in Ca2+ spark and STOC frequency were inhibited by lowering external Ca2+ from 2 mmol/L to 10 micromol/L but not by voltage-dependent Ca2+ channel inhibitors, suggesting that these responses require extracellular Ca2+ influx via channels other than voltage-dependent Ca2+ channels. Antisense-mediated suppression of TRPV4 expression in intact cerebral arteries prevented 11,12 EET-induced smooth muscle hyperpolarization and vasodilation. Thus, we conclude that TRPV4 forms a novel Ca2+ signaling complex with ryanodine receptors and BKCa channels that elicits smooth muscle hyperpolarization and arterial dilation via Ca2+-induced Ca2+ release in response to an endothelial-derived factor.     

Local Ca2+ entry through L-type Ca2+ channels activates Ca2+-dependent K+ channels in rabbit coronary myocytes.

Large-conductance Ca2+-dependent K+ channels (KCa), which are abundant on the sarcolemma of vascular myocytes, provide negative feedback via membrane hyperpolarization that limits Ca2+ entry through L-type Ca2+ channels (ICaL). We hypothesize that local accumulation of subsarcolemmal Ca2+ during ICaL openings amplifies this feedback. Our goal was to demonstrate that Ca2+ entry through voltage-gated ICaL channels can stimulate adjacent KCa channels by a localized interaction in enzymatically isolated rabbit coronary arterial myocytes voltage clamped in whole-cell or in cell-attached patch clamp mode. During slow-voltage-ramp protocols, we identified an outward KCa current that is activated by a subsarcolemmal Ca2+ pool dissociated from bulk cytosolic Ca2+ pool (measured with indo 1) and is dependent on L-type Ca2+ channel activity. Transient activation of unitary KCa channels in cell-attached patches could be detected during long step depolarizations to +40 mV (holding potential, -40 mV; 219 pS in near-symmetrical K+). This local interaction between the channels required the presence of Ca2+ in the pipette solution, was enhanced by the ICaL agonist Bay K 8644, and persisted after impairment of the sarcoplasmic reticulum by incubation with 10 micromol/L ryanodine and 30 micromol/L cyclopiazonic acid for at least 60 minutes. Furthermore, we provide the first direct evidence of simultaneous openings of single KCa (67 pS) and ICaL (3.9 pS) channels in near-physiological conditions, near resting membrane potential. Our data imply a novel sensitive mechanism for regulating resting membrane potential and tone in vascular smooth muscle.     

Molecular coupling of a Ca2+-activated K+ channel to L-type Ca2+ channels via alpha-actinin2

Cytoskeletal proteins are known to sculpt the structural architecture of cells. However, their role as bridges linking the functional crosstalk of different ion channels is unknown. Here, we demonstrate that a small conductance Ca(2+)-activated K(+) channels (SK2 channel), present in a variety of cells, where they integrate changes in intracellular Ca(2+) concentration [Ca(2+)(i)] with changes in K(+) conductance and membrane potential, associate with L-type Ca(2+) channels; Ca(v)1.3 and Ca(v)1.2 through a physical bridge, alpha-actinin2 in cardiac myocytes. SK2 channels do not physically interact with L-type Ca(2+) channels, instead, the 2 channels colocalize via their interaction with alpha-actinin2 cytoskeletal protein. The association of SK2 channel with alpha-actinin2 localizes the channel to the entry of external Ca(2+) source, which regulate the channel function. Furthermore, we demonstrated that the functions of SK2 channels in atrial myocytes are critically dependent on the normal expression of Ca(v)1.3 Ca(2+) channels. Null deletion of Ca(v)1.3 channel results in abnormal function of SK2 channel and prolongation of repolarization and atrial arrhythmias. Our study provides insight into the molecular mechanisms of the coupling of SK2 channel with voltage-gated Ca(2+) channel, and represents the first report linking the coupling of 2 different types of ion channels via cytoskeletal proteins.     

Molecular and functional identification of cyclic AMP-sensitive BKCa potassium channels (ZERO variant) and L-type voltage-dependent calcium channels in single rat juxtaglomerular cells

This study aimed at identifying the type and functional significance of potassium channels and voltage-dependent calcium channels (Ca(v)) in single rat JG cells using whole-cell patch clamp. Single JG cells displayed outward rectification at positive membrane potentials and limited net currents between -60 and -10 mV. Blockade of K+ channels with TEA inhibited 83% of the current at +105 mV. Inhibition of KV channels with 4-AP inhibited 21% of the current. Blockade of calcium-sensitive voltage-gated K+ channels (BKCa) with charybdotoxin or iberiotoxin inhibited 89% and 82% of the current, respectively. Double immunofluorescence confirmed the presence of BKCa and renin in the same cell. cAMP increased the outward current by 1.6-fold, and this was inhibited by 74% with iberiotoxin. Expression of the cAMP-sensitive splice variant (ZERO) of BKCa was confirmed in single-sampled JG cells by RT-PCR. The resting membrane potential of JG cells was -32 mV and activation of BKCa with cAMP hyperpolarized cells on average 16 mV, and inhibition with TEA depolarized cells by 17 mV. The cells displayed typical high-voltage activated calcium currents sensitive to the L-type Ca(v) blocker calciseptine. RT-PCR analysis and double-immunofluorescence labeling showed coexpression of renin and L-type Ca(v) 1.2. The cAMP-mediated increase in exocytosis (measured as membrane capacitance) was inhibited by depolarization to +10 mV, and this inhibitory effect was blocked with calciseptine, whereas K+-blockers had no effect. We conclude that JG cells express functional cAMP-sensitive BKCa channels (the ZERO splice variant) and voltage-dependent L-type Ca2+ channels.     

二十二碳六烯酸对大鼠冠状动脉平滑肌细胞大电导钙激活性钾通道的影响

目的探讨二十二碳六烯酸(DHA)对大鼠冠状动脉平滑肌细胞(CASMCs)上大电导钙激活性钾通道(BKCa)的影响。方法采用酶消化法获得大鼠CASMCs,用膜片钳技术分别记录0,10,20,40,60和80μmol/LDHA对大鼠CASMCs上BKCa通道动力学的影响。结果在不同浓度DHA作用下,IBKCa和BKCa尾电流均呈浓度依赖性增加。IBKCa和BKCa尾电流I-V曲线均上移,对IBKCa稳态激活曲线无影响。在指令电压+150 mV,不同浓度DHA作用下,IBKCa电流密度分别为68.24±22.75,72.40±24.49,120.44±37.96,237.48±53.22,323.60±74.83和370.61±88.16pA/pF(P<0.05,n=20)。DHA对IBKCa激活的药物半效浓度为36.22±2.17μmol/L。在测试电压+90 mV,不同浓度DHA作用下,BKCa尾电流密度分别为91.02±13.52,100.23±17.34,224.02±38.76,369.19±65.39,511.39±82.77和700.14±96.64 pA/pF(P<0.05,n=20)。结论 DHA对全细胞BKCa有激活作用,对稳态激活曲线无影响。DHA对BKCa通道的激活作用可能是其舒张血管机制之一。     

NO hyperpolarizes pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells and decreases the intracellular Ca2+ concentration by activating voltage-gated K+ channels.

NO causes pulmonary vasodilation in patients with pulmonary hypertension. In pulmonary arterial smooth muscle cells, the activity of voltage-gated K+ (Kv) channels controls resting membrane potential. In turn, membrane potential is an important regulator of the intracellular free calcium concentration ([Ca2+]i) and pulmonary vascular tone. We used patch clamp methods to determine whether the NO-induced pulmonary vasodilation is mediated by activation of Kv channels. Quantitative fluorescence microscopy was employed to test the effect of NO on the depolarization-induced rise in [Ca2+]i. Blockade of Kv channels by 4-aminopyridine (5 mM) depolarized pulmonary artery myocytes to threshold for initiation of Ca2+ action potentials, and thereby increased [Ca2+]i. NO (approximately 3 microM) and the NO-generating compound sodium nitroprusside (5-10 microM) opened Kv channels in rat pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells. The enhanced K+ currents then hyperpolarized the cells, and blocked Ca(2+)-dependent action potentials, thereby preventing the evoked increases in [Ca2+]i. Nitroprusside also increased the probability of Kv channel opening in excised, outside-out membrane patches. This raises the possibility that NO may act either directly on the channel protein or on a closely associated molecule rather than via soluble guanylate cyclase. In isolated pulmonary arteries, 4-aminopyridine significantly inhibited NO-induced relaxation. We conclude that NO promotes the opening of Kv channels in pulmonary arterial smooth muscle cells. The resulting membrane hyperpolarization, which lowers [Ca2+]i, is apparently one of the mechanisms by which NO induces pulmonary vasodilation.     

Potassium channels in the peripheral microcirculation

Vascular smooth muscle (VSM) cells, endothelial cells (EC), and pericytes that form the walls of vessels in the microcirculation express a diverse array of ion channels that play an important role in the function of these cells and the microcirculation in both health and disease. This brief review focuses on the K+ channels expressed in smooth muscle and endothelial cells in arterioles. Microvascular VSM cells express at least four different classes of K+ channels, including inward-rectifier K+ channels (Kin), ATP-sensitive K+ channels (KATP), voltage-gated K+ channels (Kv), and large conductance Ca2+-activated K+ channels (BKCa). VSM KIR participate in dilation induced by elevated extracellular K+ and may also be activated by C-type natriuretic peptide, a putative endothelium-derived hyperpolarizing factor (EDHF). Vasodilators acting through cAMP or cGMP signaling pathways in VSM may open KATP, Kv, and BKCa, causing membrane hyperpolarization and vasodilation. VSMBKc. may also be activated by epoxides of arachidonic acid (EETs) identified as EDHF in some systems. Conversely, vasoconstrictors may close KATP, Kv, and BKCa through protein kinase C, Rho-kinase, or c-Src pathways and contribute to VSM depolarization and vasoconstriction. At the same time Kv and BKCa act in a negative feedback manner to limit depolarization and prevent vasospasm. Microvascular EC express at least 5 classes of K+ channels, including small (sKCa) and intermediate(IKCa) conductance Ca2+-activated K+ channels, Kin, KATP, and Kv. Both sK and IK are opened by endothelium-dependent vasodilators that increase EC intracellular Ca2+ to cause membrane hyper-polarization that may be conducted through myoendothelial gap junctions to hyperpolarize and relax arteriolar VSM. KIR may serve to amplify sKCa- and IKCa-induced hyperpolarization and allow active transmission of hyperpolarization along EC through gap junctions. EC KIR channels may also be opened by elevated extracellular K+ and participate in K+-induced vasodilation. EC KATP channels may be activated by vasodilators as in VSM. Kv channels may provide a negative feedback mechanism to limit depolarization in some endothelial cells.