Acute otitis media: To follow-up or treat?

Acute otitis media (AOM) is the most common diagnosis for which antibiotics are prescribed in children. However, due to their widespread use, we are witnesses to increased development of bacterial resistance to antibiotics. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the necessity of antibiotic treatment in patients with AOM. Our study included 314 children, aged between 2 months and 6 years. Children were divided into two groups: the first group included children with less severe forms of AOM, who received symptomatic therapy and “wait-and-see” approach (237 children); the second group presented with purulent ear infection and received antibiotic treatment from the beginning (77 children). After symptomatic therapy, resolution of the disease, without use of any antibiotics, was established in 61% of patients, compared to the overall sample of children with AOM. None of the children developed complications that would require surgical treatment. In the second group of children, receiving antibiotics, almost the same therapeutic effects (80%) were achieved with the use of amoxicillin, amoxicillin-clavulanate and cefixime, while the worst results were obtained after using azithromycin.The wait-and-see approach is recommended in forms of AOM without serious signs and symptoms, because it significantly reduces the use of antibiotics and their potential adverse effects.     

Uptake of horseradish peroxidase by the middle ear mucosa in experimentally induced otitis media

Summary Electron microscopy was used to study the characteristics of uptake of the protein tracer, horseradish peroxidase (HRP), by the middle ear mucosa of chinchillas. Two types of experimental otitis media were used: serous otitis media (SOM) produced by eustachian tube obstruction and purulent otitis media (POM) produced by inoculation of Streptococcus pneumoniae type 7F. HRP was placed in each tympanic bulla for either 1 min or 10 min. In the 1-min installation of HRP, the degree of HRP uptake was higher in SOM and POM animals than in control animals. Following the 10-min installation of HRP, the degree of HRP uptake was higher in SOM and POM animals than in control animals. Following the 10-min installation of HRP, the degree of tracer uptake was almost the same as among the control, SOM and POM animals. The mechanism of uptake was pinocytosis. In another experiment, 5-hydroxydopamine (mol. wt. 256) was used as a small tracer placed into the bulla to examine the permeability of epithelial tight junctions. No labelling of reaction product was observed in the tight junctions of the control, SOM or POM animals. these findings suggest that otitis media increases the uptake of HRP by pinocytosis and that epithelial tight junctions remain intact in inflammation of the middle ear cavity. Offprint requests to: M. Sakagami     

Pneumococcal bacteriology after pneumococcal otitis media with special reference to pneumococcal antigens

Fifty-four ears with evidence of pneumococcus (Pn) in the first acute otitis media (AOM) in 38 infants and with prolongation or recurrence of the MEF during the follow-up were observed for 7-22 months for the presence of Pn by culture or of pneumococcal antigen (Pn-ag) by counterimmunoelectrophoresis or latex agglutination methods in their MEFs. During the first three 1-month observation periods, Pn and/or Pn-ags were detected in 24% to 9% of these ears, always of the initial type/group. Later on new Pn types/groups appeared also. In two of the 9 MEFs persisting for greater than or equal to 3 months, initial Pn-ag, with culturable Pn, was repeatedly found but not for longer than 5 months. Of the 12 ears resulting in secretory otitis media (SOM) only one showed initial Pn-ag (and Pn) in the MEF of SOM. Pneumococcal type/group pattern associated with prolongation or recurrence of infection did not differ from that of initial AOM. In another series of 151 SOM ears in 97 children, Pn-ags were detected in 7 MEFs. Four of them grew Pn, each of the corresponding group. Our studies suggest that the persistence of Pn-ags in the middle ear after AOM is limited and their occurrence in the MEFs of SOM is rare. Thus, the role of the persistence of Pn-ags in prolonged, recurrent or secretory otitis media seems questionable.     

Expression of Toll-like receptors on peripheral blood white cells in acute otitis media

Objective

From 10 to 15% of children suffer from recurrent acute otitis media (AOM). An association between polymorphism in TLRs and their co-receptor CD14 with otitis media proneness has been described in children. Moreover, the experiments on animal models have shown that TLRs and their signaling molecules are critical for timely resolution of bacterial otitis.

Aim

The aim of this study was to determine the expression of TLR1, TLR2 and TLR4 on lymphocytes, monocytes and granulocytes in peripheral blood in children with recurrent or persistent AOM.

Methods

The study was performed on a group of 25 children hospitalized for recurrent AOM, failures of previous treatments and/or acute mastoiditis. The results were compared to the control group of healthy children at the same age. The expression of TLRs on peripheral blood white cells was measured by flow cytometric analysis. The results were expressed as mean fluorescence intensity (MFI). The statistical analysis was performed using the Mann–Whitney U test.

Results

The highest expression of TLR was found on monocytes, the lowest on lymphocytes in both groups of children (AOM and the control one). The expression of TLR1 was the lowest and expression of TLR4 was the highest on all examined cells. The expression of all examined TLRs on monocytes was significantly higher in the AOM group.

Conclusions

Peripheral blood monocytes are characterized by increased expression of TLRs in the course of recurrent AOM.     

分泌性中耳炎中耳积液的Epstein-Barr病毒测定

目的：探讨在分泌性中耳炎（ＳＯＭ）中的发病过程中是否有Ｅｐｓｔｅｉｎ－Ｂａｒｒ病毒（ＥＢＶ）参与。方法：应用聚合酶链反应（ＰＣＲ）技术对３４例ＳＯＭ患者（ＳＯＭ组）的血清、口腔含濑液和中耳积液（ＭＥＥ）进行ＥＢＶ检测,并与２０例正常人进行比较。结果：ＳＯＭ组血清和口腔含漱液标本中ＥＢＶ的检出率明显高于对照组,ＳＯＭ组ＭＥＥ中的ＥＢＶ检出率高于其血液标本。结论：在ＳＯＭ的发病过程中有ＥＢＶ的参与。     

咽鼓管咽口及其周围形态学改变与分泌性中耳炎的相关性研究

目的:研究咽鼓管咽口及其周围形态学改变与分泌性中耳炎(SOM)的相关性。方法:72例(144耳)正常人为对照组,89例(151耳)SOM患者为SOM组。用纤维鼻咽镜观察对照组和SOM组咽鼓管咽口的形态及SOM组咽鼓管咽口周围形态改变。结果:①对照组和SOM组成人咽鼓管咽口形态中三角形及缝隙形的差异有统计学意义(均P<0.01);②对照组和SOM组儿童咽鼓管咽口形态差异无统计学意义;③成人SOM咽鼓管咽口周围形态改变与儿童不同。结论:①成人咽鼓管咽口形态改变在SOM的发生、发展中有着不可忽视的相关性,为探索成人SOM的治疗提供了一个新的思路。②在SOM组儿童中发现所有患儿咽鼓管咽口周围主要是鼻咽部炎症,次之是腺样体肥大和咽鼓管扁桃体肥大。③本研究采用纤维鼻咽镜直接观察咽鼓管咽口及鼻咽侧壁,对于明确SOM的病因和选择治疗方案具有重要意义。     

A systematic review of the effect of tympanostomy tubes in children with recurrent acute otitis media

Objective

Documentation of the effect of tympanostomy tubes in children with recurrent acute otitis media (RAOM) is limited. A recently published Cochrane review on the effect of tympanostomy tubes in children with RAOM was based on only two studies. Could the documentation be increased by including other randomized studies?

Methods

A MEDLINE and EMBASE search for randomized controlled trials was performed and 143 eligible papers were found. Only five studies could be included. All five were randomized studies with a total of 519 children, four randomized by children and one by ears. All five studies had different designs and control groups, making a proper meta-analysis impossible. Three studies had an antibiotic treated group, two studies a placebo group, and two studies a no treatment group as comparison group. Outcome measures were rates of AOM or fraction free of AOM in six or 12 months.

Results

Between two and five children have to be treated with tympanostomy tubes to prevent one child from attacks of acute otitis media (AOM) in six months. Tube treatment could reduce AOM with about one attack in six months after operation. Six months treatment with antibiotics was not different from treatment with tubes. No study reported quality of life for child and family or parental absence from day care or work.

Conclusion

Insertion of tympanostomy tubes or long-term treatment with antibiotics seems to prevent one attack of AOM or keep one child out of three free from AOM in six months.     

Intratemporal and intracranial complications of acute otitis media in a pediatric population

ObjectiveTo review all cases intratemporal and intracranial complications of acute otitis media (AOM) in infants and children from 1998 to 2013.MethodsRetrospective chart review of 109 consecutive patients admitted for complications of AOM during a 15-year period at a tertiary-care children's hospital. The main outcomes are: (1) complications of AOM, (2) bacteriology, (3) management strategies.ResultsIn our population, complications included mastoiditis (86.1%), subperiosteal abscess (38%), facial nerve palsy (16.7%), sigmoid sinus thrombosis (8.3%) and epidural abscess (7.4%). Other complications included post-auricular cellulitis, otic hydrocephalus and elevated intracranial pressure, internal jugular thrombosis, cranial nerve VI palsy and Gradenigo's syndrome, labyrinthine fistula, sensorineural hearing loss, and cerebellar infarct. Sixty-one patients (56%) received antibiotics prior to presentation. Cultures revealed Streptococcus pneumoniae in 36 patients (33.3%), other bacteria in 30 patients (27.8%), and “no growth” in 33 patients (30.5%). Nine patients (8.3%) did not undergo culture. Of the patients with S. pneumoniae, 20 cultures (55%) were found to be multidrug-resistant. Eleven patients (10.2%) were treated non-surgically, 31 (31%) were treated with myringotomy and intravenous antibiotics. Forty patients (97.5%) presenting with subperiosteal abscess required mastoid surgery. Thirteen of 18 (72.2%) patients with facial paralysis had full recovery. Eight of 10 (80%) patients with epidural abscess empyema required mastoid surgery and incision and drainage of the abscess.ConclusionComplications of AOM are uncommon, yet continue to have potentially serious consequences. The bacteriology in this population reveals an increasing trend of multi-drug resistant S. pneumoniae as the causative organism.     

Delayed otogenic hydrocephalus after acute otitis media in pediatric patients: the changing presentation of a serious otologic complication

Conclusions. The clinical presentation of otogenic dural sinus thrombosis (DST) as a complication of acute otitis media (AOM) can be masked by antibiotic treatment. Morning episodes of vomiting and/or headache, visual impairment and a history of AOM seem to be indicative of otogenic hydrocephalus. We therefore advocate that the MRI scans of patients with similar symptoms should be carefully studied to facilitate the early diagnosis of a potentially life-threatening complication. Objective. To describe the frequency, pathognomonic signs, clinical course and outcome of otogenic hydrocephalus and DST as complications of AOM in pediatric patients. Material and methods. We undertook a retrospective chart review of all pediatric patients (age 1–14?years) treated for otitis media and its complications at an academic medical center between 1999 and 2003. The main outcome measures were otologic and ophthalmologic findings and CT and MRI scans at the beginning of treatment and 3?months later. Results. We report on five cases with otogenic DST following AOM. All but one of them presented initially with diplopia caused by otogenic hydrocephalus. In four cases the otologic complaints had already disappeared by the time of MRI confirmation of the diagnosis. Only one child was referred with severe otologic symptoms. Management included systemic antibiotics, short-term heparin anticoagulation and surgical decompression. In our cases, even after intensive i.v. antibiotic treatment, only surgery led to a significant improvement in the clinical condition.     

Treatment of secretory otitis media with Kampo medicine

Summary Kampo medicine is a traditional Japanese herbal medicine that is known as Sairei-to and has been used to treat otitis media. This preparation was given orally for 4 weeks to 35 children with secretory otitis media (SOM). Four of 46 ears (8.7%) completely resolved while 32 ears (69.6%) showed a partial improvement without serious adverse reaction. Our findings indicate that Kampo medicine may resolve the inflammation and immune response associated with SOM. Further studies in its mechanism of action are warranted.     

What are the leading causative pathogens in acute otitis media with tympanic membrane perforation?

ObjectivesAcute otitis media (AOM) is a common infectious disease in children. Data regarding the distribution of causative pathogens are not universal. Tympanic perforation due to AOM may occur in 5–30% of AOM patients. The causative pathogens for AOM with tympanic perforation are limited.MethodsThis was a prospective study conducted at the Department of Otolaryngology, Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Thailand. All consecutive children diagnosed as having AOM with tympanic perforation were enrolled. The age of the eligible patients was between 3 months and 5 years. Pus from the middle ear of each patient was swabbed and tested for culture/sensitivity.ResultsThere were 40 eligible patients diagnosed with AOM with tympanic perforation in this study. The mean age of all patients was 24.3 months and the patients were predominantly male (26 male; 65.0%). None of these patients received S. pneumoniae or H. influenzae vaccination. All specimens were culture positive (100%) and 13 organisms were identified. There were 53 identified pathogens; the most common pathogen was H. influenzae (19 times or 35.8%), followed by Staphylococcus aureus (14 times or 26.4%). H. influenzae was 100% sensitive to chloramphenicol, amoxicilllin/clavulanic acid, cefotaxime, and ciprofloxacin, while S. aureus was also 100% sensitive to oxacillin, vancomycin, and fusidic acid.ConclusionsThe two most common pathogens for AOM with tympanic perforation were H. influenzae and Staphylococcus aureus. Both pathogens were mostly sensitive to antibiotics.     

Clinical effects of clarithromycin on persistent inflammation following Haemophilus influenzae-positive acute otitis media

Conclusion: Additional treatment with clarithromycin (CAM) reduced persistent middle ear inflammation after acute otitis media (AOM) caused by Haemophilus influenzae in children. CAM is a treatment option for persistent inflammation following AOM and to prevent continuing otitis media with effusion. Objective: We conducted a clinical study to evaluate a new method of treatment for persistent inflammation after AOM in children. Methods: H. influenzae-infected children with AOM were treated acutely with antimicrobial agents, after which those still demonstrating effusion of the middle ear cavity received additional treatment with carbocysteine (S-CMC) alone or S-CMC combined with clarithromycin (CAM) for 1 week. The two regimens were compared in terms of clinical effects. Results: After the initial acute treatment, many patients still showed abnormal otoscopic findings. At the completion of additional treatment, there were no significant differences between the two treatment groups. However, 1 week after completion of additional treatment, the prevalence of a diminished light reflex was significantly lower in the CAM + S-CMC group than in the S-CMC group (p = 0.017). The prevalence of redness of the tympanic membrane also tended to be lower in the combined treatment group than in those receiving a single drug (p = 0.097).     

Nystagmus in patients with unilateral acute otitis media complicated by serous labyrinthitis

Conclusion The patients with serous labyrinthitis caused by acute otitis media (AOM) exhibited various patterns of nystagmus in which direction-fixed irritative-type nystagmus was the most common pattern. Differential effects on inner ear function by toxic or inflammatory mediators may be responsible for the various manifestation of nystagmus. Objective This study aimed to investigate nystagmus patterns in patients with serous labyrinthitis, and discuss possible mechanisms. Methods From October 2011 to March 2014, 13 consecutive patients with serous labyrinthitis were included. Eye movements of the patients were serially examined using video-nystagmography, and patterns of nystagmus were investigated. Results The most commonly observed pattern was direction-fixed nystagmus (nine of 13 patients). Of these, eight showed irritative-type, and one showed paretic-type. Direction of nystagmus, although the intensity gradually decreased, was not changed during the course of treatment. One patient showed direction-changing spontaneous nystagmus, which changed into paretic-type direction-fixed nystagmus 1?day after myringotomy. Three patients exhibited persistent direction-changing positional nystagmus in a supine head-roll test. Of them, two showed apogeotropic and one showed geotropic type. In all 13 patients, vertigo and hearing loss were improved after the treatment.     

Antibiotic resistance in pathogens causing acute otitis media in Finnish children

IntroductionMicrobiology and susceptibility of middle ear pathogens in children change over time and antibiotic resistance is increasing globally. For the clinicians it is important to be up to date about the resistance situation when considering antibiotic treatment in acute otitis media (AOM). In this study we analysed the resistance profile of AOM pathogens in out-patient children in Finland.Methods and materialsA total of 41 culture positive middle ear fluid (MEF) samples were analysed for bacteria and the presence of antibiotic resistant strains. The samples were obtained from children aged six – 39 months who participated in the otitis media trial during one year period.ResultsThe most common pathogen was Haemophilus influenzae 17 (40%), followed by Streptococcus pneumoniae in 15 (35%) and Moraxella catarrhalis in 8 (19%). Other pathogens were detected in 3 (7%) of cases. Antibiotic resistance or diminished sensitivity was seen in 63% of the detected bacteria and 28% of pathogens produced beta-lactamase.ConclusionsAntibiotic resistant bacterial strains causing AOM have increased in Finland. Nevertheless, most of the pathogens (72%) were sensitive to amoxicillin, which is still recommended as the first line antibiotic in the treatment of AOM.     

中西医结合治疗分泌性中耳炎

目的 观察中西医结合治疗分泌性中耳炎的疗效。方法 对80例分泌性中耳炎患者采用中西医结合治疗。同时，另外80例患者单纯使用西药治疗作为对照组。结果 中西医结合治疗组的痊愈率及总有效率均明显提高。结论 中西医结合治疗分泌性中耳炎是一种值得推广的方法。     

Cochlear Implantation in Patients with a History of Chronic Otitis Media

Objective —To propose management options for cochlear implantation in chronic otitis media based on our experiences.

Material and Methods —A retrospective review of 418 cochlear implantations performed by the 2 senior authors between November 1988 and February 2004 was conducted. Nine patients who had chronic otitis media in the ear to be implanted were included. Of these, three showed active inflammation at presentation; the other six cases had undergone previous tympanomastoidectomy surgery and did not show active inflammation at presentation.

Results —Five patients with active inflammation or without an adequate soft tissue layer in the mastoid bowl underwent a two-stage procedure. Four cases who showed inactive inflammation and had an adequate tissue layer to protect the electrode array underwent a single-stage technique, although two of them showed dry tympanic membrane perforation. No local or intracranial inflammation recurred. The electrode was exposed in the mastoid bowl in one case, who was managed with revisional mastoid obliteration with soft tissue.

Conclusion —Complete eradication of inflammation and the securing of a strong protective soft tissue layer over the electrode are prerequisites for cochlear implantation in ears with chronic otitis media.     

Tomographic evaluation of the contralateral ear in patients with severe chronic otitis media

Some studies indicate a bilateral tendency of chronic otitis media. It is believed that the contralateral ear can provide evidences of the route of formation of ear disease in the most affected, be a parameter of Eustachian tube function and predict successful treatment. The CT scan is an excellent test to evaluate the structures of the temporal bone and the changes resulting from otitis media.ObjectiveTo evaluate Temporal Bone Computed Tomography of patients with chronic otitis media and describe abnormalities in the contralateral ear.MethodCross-sectional study. Evaluation of CT scans of 75 patients with chronic otitis media from a tertiary referral hospital in Brazil by a neuroradiologist.ResultsPopulation was consisted of 50.6% males with a mean age of 36 years. We found 54.7% of changes in contralateral ear clearly associated with chronic otitis media.ConclusionThe prevalence of radiographic changes in the contralateral ears of patients with chronic otitis media corroborates with clinical, histopathological and functional resources developed by the same group that this disease has a bilateral feature.     

分泌性中耳炎中耳积液血小板活化因子的测定

目的 :探讨血小板活化因子 (PAF)在分泌性中耳炎 (SOM)发生和转归中的作用。方法 :采用高效液相色谱法测定了 5 6例 (6 8耳 )SOM患者血浆和中耳积液 (MEE)中PAF的含量 ,并以 4 0例正常人血浆作为对照。结果 :SOM患者MEE中PAF浓度明显高于其血浆中的浓度 (P <0 .0 1) ,SOM患者血浆中PAF浓度明显高于对照组血浆中的浓度 (P <0 .0 5 ) ;黏液性中耳积液中的PAF浓度明显高于浆液性中耳积液中的浓度 (P <0 .0 1)。结论 :PAF是SOM中耳积液中的重要炎性递质 ,它与疾病的持续状态相关 ,可能在SOM的病因和发病机制中起着重要的作用     

What is the effectiveness of beta-glucan for treatment of acute otitis media?

IntroductionAs a supplement, beta–glucan has various therapeutic healing effects generated by the immune cells. It has been scientifically approved and proven to be a biological defense modifier. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of beta–glucan on treatments administered in an acute otitis media modelObjectivesThis study investigated the effect of beta–glucan on the treatment of acute otitis media in an acute otitis media -induced animal model. Efficacy was evaluated both immunologically and histologically.MethodsThe study sample comprised 35 adult rats, randomly separated into 5 groups of 7: Group 1 (control), Group 2 (acute otitis media, no treatment), Group 3 (acute otitis media + antibiotic), Group 4 (acute otitis media + beta–glucan) and Group 5 (acute otitis media + beta–glucan + antibiotic). Analyses were made of the histopathology and immunology examination results in respect of thickening of the tympanic membrane, epithelium damage, inflammation, and sclerosis. In all groups the serum levels of TNF-α, IL-4, IL-6 and IL-1β were evaluated.ResultsAll serum cytokine levels were significantly lower in the beta–glucan and antibiotic-treated groups compared to the acute otitis media Group. Significant differences in tympanic membrane thickness, inflammation, epithelium damage, and sclerosis values were observed between the acute otitis media + antibiotic and acute otitis media + beta–glucan Groups. According to these parameters, the values in aute otitis media + antibiotic + beta–glucan Group were markedly lower than those of the other groups. There was a significant difference in the acute otitis media + antibiotic + beta–glucan Groups compared to acute otitis media Group (p < 0.001).ConclusionsBoth antibiotic and beta–glucan treatment reduced acute otitis media signs of inflammations in an acute otitis media-induced rat model, decreasing histological damage and cytokine levels. Co-administration of antibiotic and beta–glucan led to a significant reduction in tympanic membrane thickness, inflammation, and epithelium damage. Antibiotic + beta–glucan treatment resulted in a greater decrease in tympanic membrane thickness, inflammation, and epithelium damage than in the other groups. From these results, it can be suggested that beta–glucan, in combination with antibiotics may provide an alternative for the treatment of acute otitis media.     

Characteristics of CI children with complicated middle ear infections†

Objective: To describe cases of complicated middle ear infections in children with cochlear implants (CI), i.e., episodes of acute otitis media (AOM) and acute mastoiditis (AM), resulting in hospitalization.

Methods: A total of 206 children under 16 years (300 implantations) were implanted between 1 January 2008 and 31 December 2014 at the West Danish CI Center, Department of Otorhinolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, Aarhus, Denmark. By means of two prospective local databases, episodes of AOM or AM and demographics were retrieved including biochemistry, microbiology, length of follow- up, and variable treatment modalities (intravenous (IV) antibiotics, revision mastoidectomy, and insertion of ventilation tubes).

Results: Overall rate of AOM and/or AM was 9.2% (AOM: 9%, AM: 1.9%). Mean age at CI was 46 months. Mean follow-up was 45 months. Mean time from CI operation to AOM or AM was 3 and 4 months, respectively. Children younger than 2 years were at highest risk of AOM and/or AM. All had antibiotics prescribed before admittance, and two- thirds of infected ears had already ventilation tubes inserted. Bacteria could not be detected in more than half of cases. The most frequently isolated strains were pneumococci and nontypable Haemophilus influenzae. The majority of patients were successfully treated with IV cefuroxime (64% of cases) and insertion of ventilation tubes. None of the children developed facial nerve paralysis, intracranial infections, or septicemia.

Discussion: Almost 10% of CI children required at least one hospitalization due to AOM and/or AM compared with 0.1 per thousand of non-CI children. This discrepancy can be explained by a low threshold for active treatment of otitis media in CI children and hence referral to a CI center. The results suggest that benzylpenicillin might be an appropriate initial treatment of AOM and AM. However, cephalosporin was the most preferred antibiotic. Most CI children were already treated with ventilation tubes at admission and almost all children without ventilation tubes, had a tube inserted during admission. Insertion of ventilation tubes is still much debated and more research in this field is needed.

Conclusion: AOM and/or AM were seen in Danish children with CI as often as in other western countries. Treatment of complicated middle ear infections was sufficient with IV cephalosporin and ventilation tube insertion. Special attention should be paid to children younger than 4 years and the associated microbiology including serotyping should be monitored.