A multi-dimensional measure of vocational identity status

Establishing a worker identity is among the most central aspects of the transition from adolescence to adulthood. Despite its importance, few measures with acceptable psychometric and conceptual characteristics exist to assess vocational identity statuses. This study reports the development and evaluation of the Vocational Identity Status Assessment (VISA), which is derived from established conceptual models and includes career exploration, commitment, and reconsideration dimensions. Results show that the VISA exhibited metric invariance across a high school and university sample. Cluster analyses demonstrated that the VISA consistently resolved six identity statuses across the two samples, supporting the previously established achieved, moratorium, foreclosed, and diffused statuses along with two additional statuses termed searching moratorium and undifferentiated. The identity statuses predicted differences in participants’ work valences and well-being with the achieved and diffused statuses respectively exhibiting the most and least favorable characteristics. Implications, limitations, and suggestions for future research based upon these findings are offered.     

Adolescent sex-role orientation and ego identity

This study investigated the relationship between sex-role development and ego development in a sample of 9th-12th grade Anglo-American and Mexican-American students attending high school in a southwestern state. All students were administered: (a) the Extended Objective Measure of Ego Identity Status (Grotevant and Adams, 1984) as a measure of ego development (i.e., diffusion, foreclosure, moratorium, and identity achievement), and (b) the Personal Attributes Questionnaire Short Form (Spence, Helmreich and Stapp, 1975) as a measure of masculinity and femininity. Results indicated no ethnic differences in the relationship between ego identity and masculinity/femininity. Adolescents who were identity achieved on ideological identity formation had significantly higher levels of masculinity than did moratorium, foreclosed, and diffused individuals. For interpersonal identity, identity achieved adolescents had higher levels of both masculinity and femininity than did individuals who were foreclosed, diffused, or in moratorium. Discussion centered on these results in light of the additional finding that there was little shared variance (eta2) between masculinity, femininity and ego identity.     

Dark shadows of rumination: Finnish young adults' identity profiles,personal goals and concerns

Young adults actively construct their identity by exploring and committing to opportunities through the setting of personal goals. Typically personal goal contents are related to young adults' developmental tasks but sometimes goals are self-focused. This longitudinal study explored personal goal and concern contents in relation to identity profiles among young Finns (N = 577) followed from age 23 to 25. Applying the Dimensions of Identity Development Scale, identity formation was measured at age 23. Latent Profile Analysis yielded five profiles: moderate achievement, moderate diffusion, achievement, diffused diffusion, and reconsidering achievement. Two “dark side” identity profiles, characterized by low commitment and high ruminative exploration, were identified: moderate diffusion and diffused diffusion. The moderate diffusion profile seemed to have developmental task-related personal goals and concerns. In the diffused diffusion profile, self-focused personal goals and concerns were typical and personal goals and concerns towards relationships atypical. These findings persisted over the two-year follow-up.     

Brief report: Engagement in sport and identity status

Drawing on identity development theory, the connection between engagement in sport and identity status was examined. First-year undergraduates (n = 116 sport-involved youth; 67% women; mean age = 18.58 yrs) completed measures of interpersonal and ideological identity status (achievement, moratorium, diffusion, foreclosure), along with behavioral (breadth, intensity) and psychological (e.g., enjoyment, competence) indicators of sport engagement. Using structural equation modeling, we examined the relation between latent sport engagement and identity status in interpersonal and ideological domains. As hypothesized, latent sport engagement predicted greater interpersonal (but not ideological) identity achievement. Consistent with identity development theory, an additional specific relation was observed between lower breadth of sport involvement and higher interpersonal identity achievement. Results demonstrate the value of examining behavioral and psychological indicators of sport engagement jointly, and support a growing body of research linking sport and positive youth development.     

The Prevalence and Incremental Validity of Identity Problem Symptoms in a High School Sample

This paper examines the expression, prevalence, and incremental validity of identity problem symptoms in adolescence. A sample of high school students (N = 140) aged 15–18 completed measures of identity problem symptoms, identity status, and psychological symptom severity. Findings suggested that 14.3% would meet DSM IV criteria for identity problem. Identity problem symptoms predicted psychological symptom scores beyond identity status, and identity status accounted for substantially less variance in psychological symptom severity when controlling for identity problem symptoms. Additional research on the relationship between identity problems and psychological adjustment is needed and greater attention to the role of identity issues in clinical practice is warranted.     

Looking at the dark and bright sides of identity formation: New insights from adolescents and emerging adults in Japan

The aim of the present study was to gain new insights into the dark and bright sides of identity formation with a sample of 1851 Japanese adolescents and emerging adults, applying a three-dimensional model of identity formation (i.e., commitment, in-depth exploration, and reconsideration of commitment). By means of cluster analysis, we identified five statuses that strongly resembled statues extracted in prior research with Western youth: achievement, foreclosure, moratorium, diffusion, and searching moratorium. We found that each status reported a distinct profile in terms of personality and psychosocial problems. Importantly, we found that the searching moratorium status was adaptive in adolescence but not in emerging adulthood. These results suggest that the five statuses are replicable in Japanese adolescents and emerging adults, and that the searching moratorium status presents a combination of the bright and dark sides whose prevalence varies with age. Clinical implications for identity research and intervention programs are discussed.     

Ego identity: Developmental differences and experimental substance use among adolescents

A total of 12,988 adolescents completed a questionnaire which assessed experience with cigarettes, inhalants, alcohol, marijuana, cocaine, and level of ego identity (EOM-EIS). Discriminant analyses of substance use, across the achievement, moratorium, foreclosure, and diffusion identity statuses, yielded significant functions for each grade comparison (7th to 12th). Frequencies of experience for diffused respondents were consistently higher than estimates for the achieved and moratorium respondents; and, foreclosed adolescents reported the lowest frequency of experience. Diffused adolescents were about twice as likely to have tried cigarettes and alcohol, three times as likely to have tried marijuana, four times as likely to have tried inhalants, and five times as likely to have used cocaine than their foreclosed peers. The achieved, moratorium, and unclassified respondents reported frequencies of experience that fell between the two extreme groups. Implications for identifying adolescents "at risk", and tailoring prevention/intervention efforts to address developmental differences are addressed.     

Family correlates of female adolescents' ego-identity development

Past research has suggested that parents may contribute to the positive development of their daughter's identity formation. Theoretical notions from both social learning and symbolic interaction indicate that parents can either facilitate or hinder positive growth. Therefore, to test the predictions that (a) more mature (moratorium and achieved) identity status parents would have daughters with more mature identities, and (b) that both positive and negative parenting styles can be detected to differentiate between less (diffused and foreclosed) and more mature identity status youths, 45 families (145 subjects) were assessed on parent-child relations and identity status formation. In contrast to much past research, parent-child relations were assessed from both the adolescents' and the parents' perspectives. The findings indicate that parental identity status formation may have an effect on the adolescent's identity formation and that parent-child relations differentiate between less and more mature female adolescent identities.     

Non-suicidal self-injury in high school students: Associations with identity processes and statuses

Non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) refers to the direct, deliberate destruction of one's body tissue without suicidal intent. Research has highlighted the importance of identity synthesis versus confusion for NSSI. However, the association with identity processes and statuses remains unknown. A total of 568 adolescents reported on NSSI, identity, anxiety, and depression. Although identity processes of identification with commitment (negatively) and ruminative exploration (positively) were related to NSSI variables, these relationships were no longer significant when controlling for anxiety and depression. When examining identity statuses (using cluster analysis), individuals who had engaged in NSSI in the past (but not currently) were more likely to be in the moratorium cluster and less likely to be in the achievement cluster. Individuals who were currently engaging in NSSI were more likely to be in the troubled diffusion cluster. Clinicians should be attentive to the complex interplay between identity and NSSI when treating adolescents.     

The relation between identity status and romantic attachment style in middle and late adolescence

This study examined the linkages between identity formation and romantic attachment in an ethnically diverse sample of high school (n=189) and college students (n=324). Individuals in the foreclosed identity status group had significantly lower relationship avoidance scores than the diffused identity status group, and the foreclosed group had significantly lower relationship anxiety scores than both the achieved identity and moratorium groups. Identity status and romantic attachment style were significantly related among the college sample, but not among the high school sample. Some ethnic differences in attachment style were noted. Developmental implications are discussed.     

The status of identity: reflections on the need for intervention

The primary purpose of this article is to examine the need for intervention in the context of the information we have gathered to date about identity formation. The research evidence indicates that the identity achievement status is associated with the greatest effectiveness in psychological functioning while the identity diffusion status is related to poorer functioning. The moratorium and foreclosure statuses generally occupy intermediate positions in this regard. The identity activity of adolescents and youth is also reviewed. The complexity of the identity construct is discussed as it relates to domains, developmental patterns, gender, historical and social contexts. The author uses the findings from a longitudinal study to illustrate the need for, and purposes of, intervention while respecting the richness of the identity construct of the individual.     

Identity,grief and self-awareness after traumatic brain injury

The objective of this study was to investigate perceived identity change in adults with traumatic brain injury (TBI) and explore associations between identity change, grief, depression, self-esteem and self-awareness. The participants were 29 adults with TBI who were being followed up by a community brain injury rehabilitation service. Participants were longer post-injury than those more commonly studied. Time since injury ranged from 2.25 to 40 years (mean?=?11.17 years, SD?=?11.4 years). Participants completed a battery of questionnaires. Significant others and clinicians completed a parallel version of one of these measures. Questionnaires included the Head Injury Semantic Differential Scale (HISDS-III), Brain Injury Grief Inventory (BIGI), Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale – Depression, Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES) and the Awareness Questionnaire (Self/Significant other/Clinician versions). The main findings were that participants reported significant changes in self-concept with current self being viewed negatively in comparison to pre-injury self. Perceived identity change was positively associated with depression and grief and negatively associated with self-esteem and awareness. Awareness was negatively associated with self-esteem and positively associated with depression. These findings were consistent with previous research, revealing changes in identity following TBI. Further research is needed to increase our understanding of the psychological factors involved in emotional adjustment after TBI and to inform brain injury rehabilitation interventions, including psychotherapy approaches.     

Looking on the bright side: the role of identity status and gender on positive orientations during emerging adulthood

Emerging adulthood has been characterized as an age of possibilities that involves heightened identity exploration and risk-taking. Although some scholars have investigated the relation between identity status and risk behaviors in emerging adulthood, less attention has been paid to the relation between identity status and prosocial orientations. Thus, the current study examined how emerging adults' engagement in positive behaviors (i.e., prosocial tendencies, internalization of values, religiosity) varied as a function of identity status and gender. Results indicated that emerging adults who were in identity diffusion reported fewer prosocial tendencies, lower scores on internalization of values and lower religiosity, but emerging adults who were experiencing moratorium reported prosocial tendencies and levels of religiosity as frequently as emerging adults who had reached identity achievement. Also, young women reported higher levels of emotional and altruistic prosocial tendencies, higher levels of internalization of values, and higher levels of religiosity than did young men. The discussion focuses on emerging adulthood as a period of possibilities and exploration for not only risk behaviors, but prosocial behaviors as well.     

Construct validity of two identity status measures: the EIPQ and the EOM-EIS-II

The present study was designed to examine construct validity of two identity status measures, the Ego Identity Process Questionnaire (EIPQ; J. Adolescence 18 (1995) 179) and the Extended Objective Measure of Ego Identity Status II (EOM-EIS-II; J. Adolescent Res. 1 (1986) 183). Construct validity was operationalized in terms of how identity status classifications generated by the EIPQ and EOM-EIS related to a measure of psychological agency, the Multi-Measure Agentic Personality Scale (MAPS; J. Adolescence 20 (1997) 421). Results indicated that, for the most part, the agentic personality scales differentiated the EIPQ diffused and moratorium statuses from the foreclosed and achieved statuses, whereas the agentic personality scales differentiated the EOM-EIS-II achieved status from the other three statuses. The EIPQ is recommended as the preferred instrument for making contrasts between or among identity statuses, whereas the EOM-EIS-II is recommended when the objective is to consider continuous measures of the identity statuses.     

Ethnic differences in adolescents'' identity status and associated behavior problems

The relationships between ethnicity and identity status and between identity status and behavior problems, social competence, and self-esteem were examined among 330 White, Black, Puerto Rican and Filipino students in an integrated high school. Identity status (i.e., achieved, moratorium, foreclosed, or diffuse) was defined on the basis of a 24-item self-report inventory on which students rated their explorations of options and/or commitments to choices in their occupational, political, and religious domains. Ethnic status was also assessed in an 8-item questionnaire which assessed exploration and commitment to one's ethnic role. White students in the upper grades reported significantly higher moratorium scale scores and perceived themselves as more likely to have explored and be committed to their ethnic role than minority youth. There were no significant ethnic differences in the relationships of identity status to behavior problems, social competence or self-esteem. Adolescent boys were significantly more likely to be in moratorium regarding their ethnic role than girls. Grade and sex differences in identity status were consistent with those predicted by developmental researchers. Across all ethnic groups, ratings of moratorium status were associated with significantly more behavior problems, less social competence, and lower self-esteem.     

Ego-identity differences among Anglo-American and Mexican-American adolescents

This study investigated potential differences in Ideological/Occupational and Interpersonal ego-identity among Anglo-American and Mexican-American adolescents. Subjects were 841 9th-12th graders attending high school in a southwestern state. All students were administered the Extended Objective Measure of Ego Identity Status to determine their level of identity diffusion, foreclosure, moratorium, and identity achievement. Multivariate analyses of co-variance with discriminant analysis were conducted separately for the two types of identity. Mothers' and fathers' education were included as covariates. Results indicated that Mexican-American youth are more foreclosed than Anglo-American youth in Ideological/Occupational identity, and may therefore be more inclined to adopt their parents' commitments to religious and political beliefs, occupational preferences, and philosophical lifestyles. Results also indicated that Mexican-American youth differ from Anglo-American youth in Interpersonal Identity as a function of grade. Discussion focused on interpretation of these results from both cultural and minority status perspectives.     

Attachment and psychological well-being among adolescents with and without disabilities in Kenya: The mediating role of identity formation

The current study is aimed at evaluating the relationship between attachment and identity development, and their influence on psychological well-being in adolescents with and without disabilities in Kenya. The sample was composed of 296 adolescents (151 with disabilities and 145 without any disability). The mean age in our sample was 16.84 years (SD = 1.75). Adolescents with disabilities had significantly lower scores in identity formation, paternal attachment, and life satisfaction. A path model indicated that identity formation partially mediated the relationship between secure attachment and psychological well-being. Our findings indicate that both parent and peer attachment play an important role in the identity formation and psychological well-being of adolescents in Kenya, irrespective of a disabling condition. A multigroup analysis indicated that while the structure of the relationship between variables held for groups, the pattern and strength of the relationships differed. Implications for practice, especially the guidance and counseling services in schools, are discussed.     

Adolescent psychological well-being by identity style

High school-age adolescents (N=262) in two samples completed a measure of identity style, along with measures of self-esteem, hopelessness, delinquent attitudes, educational expectations, and optimism/efficacy. Analysis of variance was used to evaluate the relationship between identity style and the other psychosocial variables. Participants classified as having a diffuse/avoidant orientation had lower self-esteem and higher delinquent attitude scores than those with either an information or normative orientation. At the same time, the diffuse-avoidant style was associated with higher hopelessness and lower optimism/efficacy scores than the normative and information styles. The normative and information styles did not differ significantly in terms of the dependent variables. Results also indicated that males were more likely to be diffused and females more likely to be information-oriented.     

Identity statuses and psychosocial functioning in Turkish youth: A person-centered approach

In the present study, we tested whether the five identity statuses of the original Meeus–Crocetti model could be extracted in a Turkish sample. Their three-factor model of identity was used to examine identity formation. Participants were 1201 (59.6% females) youth aged between 12 and 24 years (M_age = 17.53 years, SD_age = 3.25). Findings revealed that the five identity statuses extracted in previous studies (Crocetti, Rubini, Luyckx, & Meeus, 2008; Crocetti, Schwartz, Fermani, Klimstra, & Meeus, 2012) also emerged in a sample of Turkish adolescents and emerging adults. Findings indicated that gender and age affected the distribution of the individuals among the five identity statuses. Furthermore, individuals in the five identity statuses represented distinct profiles according to personality and self characteristics, problem behaviors and well-being, and interpersonal and group relationships. Finally, the status × age interactions indicated that the searching moratorium status became more problematic with age. Implications and suggestions for future research are also discussed.     

The development of ethnic identity in Asian-American adolescents: status and outcome

Ethnic identity status and outcome were assessed in a heterogeneous group of 342 Asian-American adolescents. Developmental progression in both ethnic identity status (from foreclosure to moratorium to achievement) and ethnic identity outcome (from unidimensional separation to bidimensional integration) was found, as was an association between ethnic identity status and outcome. Implications of the findings are discussed.