CT及X线小肠造影对小肠克罗恩病的诊断价值评价

目的探讨CT及X线小肠造影对小肠克罗恩病（CD）的诊断价值。方法回顾性分析经手术和病理证实的39例CD患者的临床病理资料。患者均有完整的CT小肠造影检查资料,其中28例患者同时行X线小肠钡餐造影检查,腹部窦道造影18例。结果39例CT小肠造影,主要表现为肠壁增厚（大于4ram）34例（87．2％）,强化增加（大于10HU）37例（94．9％）,多节段性病变33例（84．6％）,肠腔不规则狭窄26例（66．7％）,系膜区淋巴结肿大（大于5mm）13例（33．3％）,肠管周围蜂窝织炎12例（30．8％）,腹腔内脓肿10例（25．6％）,炎性包块8例（20．5％）,不全性肠梗阻14例（35．9％）,腹腔积液22例（56．4％）,瘘管形成4例（10．3％）;CT小肠造影未显示肠壁线形溃疡和卵石征,对肠瘘的显示率不高。28例X线小肠造影,多节段性病变23例（82．1％）,单节段病变5例（17．9％）,肠腔不规则狭窄15例（53．6％）,多发性、纵行裂隙状溃疡18例（64．3％）,卵石征16例（57．1％）,肠瘘4例（14_3％）;X线小肠造影未显示肠壁增厚及腹腔脓肿、炎性包块等肠外并发症,对肠瘘的显示率亦不高。18例腹部窦道造影中,肠瘘13例（72．2％）,腹腔脓肿形成12例（66．7％）,窦道形成8例（44．4％）。结论CT小肠造影对全面评价CD的病变范围、并发症及指导临床治疗具有重要作用,但难以显示肠壁线形溃疡和卵石征。X线小肠造影易于显示CD的线形溃疡和卵石征的特征性改变,而腹部窦道造影易于显示肠瘘及腹腔内脓肿。两种检查方法相互结合,对于指导CD的临床诊断及综合治疗具有重要价值。     

自适应迭代降剂量技术在克罗恩病CT小肠造影中的临床应用

目的 评价自适应迭代降剂量（AIDR）技术在克罗恩病CT小肠造影中的应用.方法 回顾性分析2013年1-3月间中山大学附属第六医院收治并经炎性肠病多学科诊疗小组确诊为克罗恩病的26例患者的临床和影像资料,所有病例均采用AIDR技术行CT小肠造影检查.由两名诊断克罗恩病经验丰富的放射科医生分别阅片,计算每例患者所受电离辐射总量,并分析克罗恩病影像学特点.结果 26例患者辐射剂量为5.58～12.90（9.00±2.00） mSv,明显低于常规使用剂量（15 mSv）.克罗恩病CT小肠造影检查发现,26例患者中,1例患者处于静止期,另外25例共出现109处节段性肠壁增厚,合并系膜侧淋巴结肿大,同时出现异常强化现象.其中16例发现肠腔狭窄,12例肠壁呈分层样强化,14例出现“梳样征”;8例出现系膜侧脂肪密度增高,7例肠瘘,6例腹腔脓肿,3例肛瘘.结论 低剂量AIDR技术CT小肠造影技术不会损失图像质量,能够有效诊断克罗恩病并明显降低辐射剂量.     

小肠镜在小肠肿瘤诊断中的价值

目的　探讨小肠镜在小肠肿瘤诊断中的价值。方法　2003～2004年间,对77例疑为 小肠肿瘤的病例,施行小肠钡餐检查、CT、MRI、推进式小肠镜和胶囊内镜检查等临床资料进行回顾 性分析。结果　有41例病人诊断为小肠肿瘤,其他疾病为30例,阴性为6例。在41例小肠肿瘤中 20例(48.8%)病人通过推进式小肠镜和胶囊内镜检查明确诊断,其中通过胶囊内镜检查确诊为小肠 肿瘤的仅有1例。另有21例(51.2%)通过X线钡餐、血管造影、CT、MRI等常规检查或是手术探查 确诊为小肠肿瘤。这些病人均施行根治手术或局部病变肠段切除,并得到病理证实。结论　推进式 小肠镜在诊断小肠肿瘤上具有较高临床价值,是常规检查方法的重要补充。     

多层螺旋CT扫描在原发性小肠肿瘤诊断中的价值

目的评价多层螺旋CT对原发性小肠肿瘤的诊断价值及其临床意义。方法回顾性分析19例经X线检查及病理证实的原发性小肠肿瘤（十二指肠和壶腹周围肿瘤除外）的临床资料，并对术前影像学资料（全消化道钡餐X线造影、CT、B超检查）进行对比分析。结果本组19例原发性小肠肿瘤中小肠腺癌9例，间质瘤5例，恶性淋巴瘤4例，腺瘤1例，阳性检出比分别为：CT为79％；超声为16％；全消化道钡餐X线造影42％。多层螺旋CT对小肠肿瘤的检出率明显优于X线钡餐造影和超声，（P〈0．05或P〈0．01）。结论多层螺旋CT对小肠原发性肿瘤的诊断具有重要价值，已成为目前检查小肠原发性肿瘤最主要的方法。     

三种影像学检查方法对结肠癌及炎症性肠病的诊断效能分析

目的：探讨X线造影、CT及结肠充盈超声检查对结肠癌和炎症性肠病（IBD）的诊断效能。方法：回顾2019年5月至2021年5月我院收治的92例结肠癌及IBD患者资料,其中结肠癌41例,溃疡性结肠炎（UC）29例,克罗恩病（CD）22例,患者均经内镜下活检病理学检查或术后病理学检查确诊,术前均行X线造影、CT及结肠充盈超声检查。比较术前3种影像学检查方法的诊断效果。结果：X线造影和结肠充盈超声对CD、UC诊断的灵敏度和准确度高于CT检查（P <0.05）,X线造影与结肠充盈超声对CD、UC的诊断灵敏度和准确度比较无明显差异（P>0.05）;3种检查方法诊断CD、UC的特异性无明显差异（P>0.05）。3种检查方法对结肠癌诊断的灵敏度、特异度及准确度均较高,差异无统计学意义,P>0.05。结论：X线造影、CT及结肠充盈超声检查对结肠癌诊断的灵敏度、特异度及准确度无明显差异,对IBD诊断的特异度亦无明显差异,但对IBD诊断的灵敏度和准确度X线造影及结肠充盈超声检查优于CT。     

原发性小肠肿瘤112例临床分析

目的：探讨原发性小肠肿瘤的临床特点以及诊断方法。方法 回顾性分析了112例原发性小肠肿瘤的临床资料，病理特点及术前诊断方法。结果：小肠肿瘤多位于十二指肠，占62．5％（70／112），良性肿瘤以平滑肌瘤为主，多位于回肠，空肠，恶性肿瘤以腺癌最常见，其次为恶性淋巴瘤，平滑肌肉瘤。首选的检查方法为X线钡餐，尤其是低张小肠灌肠造影，内镜检查可提高十二指肠肿瘤的诊断率，对诊断困难的消化道出血可行选择性肠系膜上动脉造影，CT对判断肿瘤的良恶性，术前分期及术后有无复发有独特的意义。结论：十二指肠腺癌是最常见的原发性小肠肿瘤，其次为恶性淋巴瘤，平滑肌瘤及平滑肌肉瘤。低张小肠灌肠造影是诊断和定位最为有效的方法，CT，内镜及肠系膜上动脉造影有助于诊断。     

腹茧症的诊断与治疗

本研究探讨腹茧症的影像学特征以及外科手术治疗的操作要点。回顾性总结12例腹茧症患者资料,分析其临床特征、CT和X线钡餐透视检查资料以及手术治疗方式。腹茧症患者的CT征象为可延迟增强的包裹小肠纤维包膜,X线钡餐透视示造影剂长时间不能排空。手术探查发现患者小肠全部或部分被一层灰白色、质密的纤维膜包裹。消化道X线钡餐造影和腹部CT检查对于原发性腹茧症患者的术前诊断具有重要价值,而手术是最有效的治疗方法。     

食管癌的X线钡餐造影与CT影像学诊断52例分析

目的分析X线钡餐造影与CT对食管癌分期的诊断价值,旨在提高对食管癌的诊断水平。方法对52例经临床手术及病理证实的各期食管癌的X线钡餐造影与CT表现进行分析,以总结其影像学表现。结果全部病例均有局部或广泛食管壁增厚,其中Ⅰ期食管癌16例,Ⅱ期22例,Ⅲ期10例,Ⅳ期4例。结论 X线钡餐造影与CT的联合诊断对食管癌分期有较高的诊断价值,为临床治疗提供了可靠的依据。     

肠壁增厚的CT表现及诊断意义

肠道是人体容易发生疾病的部位之一，肠外局部或全身性疾病也易累及肠道。无论肠道原发疾病还是肠外疾病累及肠道，肠壁增厚都是一种常见而重要的病理改变。钡餐、钡灌肠和纤维内镜是常用的检查手段，但它们只能显示肠腔内及黏膜面的情况；灰阶超声和多普勒超声可发现肠壁及肠外异常，但敏感性和准确率低，且受操作者经验影响较大。随着影像检查技术的不断进步，CT用于肠道疾病的诊断已日益普遍，多层螺旋CT快速薄层扫描和强大的图像后处理能力使其成为显示肠壁及相关肠外病变的主要手段。     

小肠克罗恩病、肠结核和原发性小肠淋巴瘤的临床、内镜及CT特征的鉴别分析

目的 探讨小肠克罗恩病(Crohn's disease,CD)、肠结核(intestinal tuberculosis,ITB)和原发性小肠淋巴瘤(primary small intestinal lymphoma,PSIL)的临床、内镜及CT特点,为三种疾病的鉴别诊断提供依据.方法 回顾性分析经病理、手术证实的86例(39例CD、24例ITB和23例PSIL)患者的临床、内镜及CT特点,86例中有完整内镜检查资料者分别为CD 23例、ITB 20例和PSIL20例.鉴别资料使用多样本率的x2检验和多均数的方差分析检验.结果 CD腹泻、肛周疾病、肠梗阻等明显高于ITB和PSIL(x2=10.134,6.769,8.000,P＜0.05);ITB发热、盗汗多于CD和PSIL(x2=25.696,19.194,P＜0.05),伴有肺结核、腹水的发生率明显高于CD和PSIL(x2=35.133,11.701,P＜0.05);PSIL的腹部包块、便血、肠穿孔发生率均多于CD和ITB(x2=19.562,17.708,12.647,P＜0.05).CD患者内镜下纵行溃疡、鹅卵石征均多见于ITB和PSIL(x2=11.592,6.283,P＜0.05);ITB的环行溃疡、鼠咬状溃疡均多见于CD和PSIL(x2=15.633,19.686,P＜0.05);PSIL的肿块状突起、肠出血均多见于CD和ITB(x2=26.120,16.735,P＜0.05).CD肠壁分层状增厚、肠壁积气、脂肪征、水肿带、肠腔狭窄、腹腔脓肿均多见于ITB和PSIL(x2=17.472,10.346,7.773,6.867,16.325,10.994,P＜0.05);CD和ITB的多节段病变多见于PSIL(x2=28.460,P＜0.05),而PSIL单节段病变、肠壁单层偏心状增厚、肠套叠均多见于CD和ITB(x2=28.460,17.997,24.161,P＜0.05).ITB“中空淋巴结”多见于CD和PSIL(x2=12.475,P＜0.05).ITB和PSIL肠壁增厚及淋巴结肿大的程度高于CD(F=8.661,7.166,P＜0.05),而PSIL的强化程度低于CD和ITB(F=10.179,P＜0.05).结论 综合分析CD、ITB与PSIL的临床、内镜及CT特点,对CD、ITB与PSIL的鉴别诊断及指导临床治疗具有重要价值.     

Vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction during major abdominal surgery

Background : We investigated the vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction (MT) with hypotension due to prostacyclin (PGI₂) release in patients undergoing abdominal surgery with a combined general and epidural anesthesia. Methods : In a prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled study we administered 400 mg ibuprofen (i.v.) in 42 patients scheduled for abdominal surgery. General anesthesia was combined with epidural anesthesia (T4-L1). Before as well as 5, 15, 30, 45, and 90 min after MT we recorded plasma osmolality, hemodynamics and measured 6-keto-PGFlα (stabile metabolite of PGI₂), TXB₂ (stabile metabolite of thromboxane A₂) active renin, and arginine vasopressin (AVP) plasma concentrations by radioimmunoassay. Catecholamine levels were assessed by high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) with electrochemical detection. Results : Following MT, arterial hypotension occurred along with a substantial PGI₂ release. This was completely abolished by ibuprofen administration. Although plasma levels of 6-keto-PGF_1α (1133 (708) vs. 60 (3) ng/L, median (median absolute deviation), P=0.0001, placebo vs. ibuprofen) remained significantly elevated, blood pressure was restored within 30 min after MT in the placebo group. At the same point in time plasma concentrations of TXB² (164 (87) vs. 58 (1) ng/L, P=0.0001), epinephrine (46 (33) vs. 14 (6) ng/L, P=0.001), AVP (41 ± (18) vs. 12 (7) ng/L, P=0.0004), and active renin (27 (12) vs. 12 (4) ng/L, P = 0.001) were significantly higher in placebo-treated patients. Conclusion : Under combined general and epidural anesthesia arterial hypotension following MT due to endogenous PGI₂ release is associated with enhanced release of AVP, active renin, epinephrine and thromboxane A₂, presumably contributing to hemodynamic stability within 30 min after MT.     

A Teaspoon Pump for Pumping Blood with High Hydraulic Efficiency and Low Hemolysis Potential

Abstract: Virtually all blood pumps contain some kind of rubbing, sliding, closely moving machinery surfaces that are exposed to the blood being pumped. These valves, internal bearings, magnetic bearing position sensors, and shaft seals cause most of the problems with blood pumps. The original teaspoon pump design prevented the rubbing, sliding machinery surfaces from contacting the blood. However, the hydraulic efficiency was low because the blood was able to "slip around" the rotating impeller so that the blood itself never rotated fast enough to develop adequate pressure. An improved teaspoon blood pump has been designed and tested and has shown acceptable hydraulic performance and low hemolysis potential. The new pump uses a nonrotating "swinging" hose as the pump impeller. The fluid enters the pump through the center of the swinging hose; therefore, there can be no fluid slip between the revolving blood and the revolving impeller. The new pump uses an impeller that is comparable to a flexible garden hose. If the free end of the hose were swung around in a circle like half of a jump rope, the fluid inside the hose would rotate and develop pressure even though the hose impeller itself did not "rotate"; therefore, no rotating shaft seal or internal bearings are required.     

A comparison of the inhibitory effects of four volatile anaesthetics on the metabolism of chlorzoxazone, a substrate for CYP2E1, in rabbits

Background: Halothane inhibits in vitro and in vivo activity of cytochrome P-450 (CYP) 2E1. There are several fluorinated volatile anaesthetics besides halothane, and most of them are defluorinated by CYP2E1. It is unclear whether other fluorinated anaesthetics inhibit the in vivo activity of CYP2E1.
Methods: We compared the inhibitory effects of therapeutic concentrations of four inhalational anaesthetics, halothane, enflurane, isoflurane, and sevoflurane, on chlorzoxazone metabolism in rabbits receiving artificial ventilation.
Results: All four inhalational anaesthetics decreased arterial blood pressure and increased plasma chlorzoxazone concentration. However, no significant differences in the plasma chlorzoxazone concentration were found between the four anaesthetics. The estimated chlorzoxazone clearance increased after beginning inhalation with all four agents, but no significant difference in clearance was noted between agents.
Conclusions: At therapeutic concentrations, the in vivo inhibitory effect on chlorzoxazone metabolism was similar for all four inhalational anaesthetics examined, even though their chemical characteristics and extent of hepatic metabolism differ considerably.     

Microspheres Based Detoxification System: A New Method in Convective Blood Purification

Abstract: A variety of protein-bound or hydrophobic substances, accumulating as a result of pathologic conditions such as exogenous or endogenous intoxications, are removed poorly by conventional detoxification methods because of low accessibility (hemodialysis), insufficient adsorption capabilities (hemosorption), low efficiency (peritoneal dialysis), or economic limitations (high-volume plasmapheresis). Combining advantages of existing methods with microspheric technology, a module-based system was designed. Major operating parameters of the latter can be modified to allow for adjustment to individual clinical situations. An extracorporeal blood circuit including a plasmafilter is combined with a secondary high-velocity plasma circuit driven by a centrifugal pump. Different microspheric adsorbers can be combined in one circuit or applied in sequence. Thus, a prolonged treatment can be tailored using specially designed selective adsorber materials. Comparing this system with existing methods (high-flux hemodialysis, molecular adsorbent recycling system), results from our in vitro studies and animal experiments demonstrate the superior efficiency of substance removal.     

Tissue perfusion in relation to cardiac output during continuous positive-pressure ventilation and administration of propranolol or verapamil

Background : Our objective was to determine whether administration of propranolol or verapamil modifies the hemodynamic adaptation to continuous positive-pressure ventilation (CPPV), in particular the regional distribution of cardiac output (CO).
Methods : General hemodynamics and regional blood flows assessed by microsphere technique (15 (μm) were recorded in 16 anesthetized pigs during spontaneous breathing (SB) and CPPV with 8 cm H₂O end-expiratory pressure (CPPV8) before and after intravenous administration of propranolol (0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.15 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8) or verapamil (0.1 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8).
Results : CPPV8 depressed CO by 25% without shifts in its relative distribution with the exception of a noteworthy increase in adrenal perfusion. Propranolol increased arterial blood pressure, and due to a fall in heart rate, CO dropped by 25%. The kidneys and, to a lesser extent, the splanchic region and central nervous system received increased fractions of the remaining CO at the expense of skeletal muscle flow. Similar patterns were seen during SB and CPPV8 such that the combination of propranolol and CPPV8 depressed CO by 50%. The circulatory effects of verapamil were less evident but myocardial perfusion tended to increase.
Conclusions : The combination of propranolol or verapamil with CPPV does not result in any specific hemodynamic interaction in anesthetized pigs, except that the combined effect of propranolol and CPPV may severely reduce CO.     

Bariatric Surgery in Some "Central and East-European (former Eastern bloc)"Countries - Current Status and Prediction for the Next Millennium

Background: Obesity is increasing globallly, including in the formerly "Eastern Bloc" countries. Methods: A survey was made of obesity and bariatric surgery. Results: In the 8 East and Central European countries studied, with total population 300 million, roughly 43% of the population was overweight (BMI 25-30), 23% obese (BMI > 30), with about 15 million people morbidly obese (BMI > 40). From 0-10 morbidly obese individuals/100,000/year undergo bariatric surgery. Conclusion: Most countries were found to provide inadequate treatment for obesity.The majority of the morbidly obese are not treated effectively. However, health-care awareness of obesity and bariatric surgeons are slowly increasing.     

Volatile anaesthetics reduce adhesion of blood platelets under low-flow conditions in the coronary system of isolated guinea pig hearts

Background : Inhibitory effects of volatile anaesthetics on platelet aggregation have been demonstrated in several studies. However, the influence of volatile anaesthetics on intracoronary platelet adhesion has not been elucidated so far.
Methods : Isolated hearts of guinea pigs were perfused with buffer in the absence or presence of volatile anaesthetics (0.5 and 1 MAC) at constant coronary flow rates of 5 ml/min for 25 min, then 1 ml/min for 30 min and again 5 ml/min for 10 min. Before, during and after low-flow perfusion, a bolus of human platelets was applied into the coronary system. To simulate thrombogenic conditions, 0.3 U/ml human thrombin was infused during low-flow perfusion and reperfusion. The number of platelets sequestered to the endothelium was calculated from the difference between coronary in- and output of platelets. The myocardial production of lactate and consumption of pyruvate and coronary perfusion pressure were also determined.
Results : At a flow rate of 5 ml/min only about 3% of the applied platelets did not emerge from the coronary system, in any group. In contrast, 13.1±1.2% (mean±SEM) of infused platelets became adherent in low-flow perfusion in the control group without anaesthetic. The adherence was reduced with each 1 MAC isoflurane (to 6.2±1.2%), sevoflurane (to 4.4±0.9%) or halothane (to 3.2±1.5%) (each P <0.05 vs. control). Volatile anaesthetic, 0.5 MAC, did not inhibit platelet adhesion to a statistically significant extent in any case. Perfusion pressure and metabolic parameters were not statistically different between the control and the hearts exposed to anaesthetics.
Conclusion : Volatile anaesthetics in a concentration of 1 MAC can reduce the adhesion of platelets in the coronary system under reduced flow conditions. This action does not arise from vasodilation or inhibition of ischaemic stress.     

Synergistic interaction between the effects of propofol and midazolam with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity in rabbits

Background: It has been shown that the depressive effects of both propofol and midazolam on consciousness are synergistic with opioids, but the nature of their interactions on other physiological systems, e. g. respiration, has not been fully investigated. The present study examined the effect of propofol and midazolam alone and in combination with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity (PNA) and whether such interactions are additive or synergistic. Methods: PNA was recorded in 27 anaesthetised and artificially ventilated rabbits. In three groups, propofol, fentanyl and midazolam were administered intravenously in incremental doses to construct dose-response curves for the depressant effects of each one on PNA. In another two groups, the effect of pretreatment with either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. on the effects of propofol and fentanyl respectively on PNA were studied. Results: Propofol and fentanyl caused a dose-dependent depression of PNA with complete abolition at the highest total doses of 16 mg · kg^?1 i. v. and 32 μg · kg^?1 i. v., respectively. In contrast, midazolam in incremental doses to a total of 0.8 mg · kg^?1 reduced mean PNA by 63%, but approximately 12% of PNA remained at a total dose as high as 6.4 mg · kg^?1. The mean ED₅₀s, calculated from dose-response curves, were 5.4 mg · kg^?1, 3.9 μg · kg^?1 and 0.4 mg · kg^?1 for propofol, fentanyl and midazolam, respectively. Initial doses of either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. acted synergistically with subsequent doses of either propofol or fentanyl to abolish PNA at total doses of 8 mg · kg^?1 and 8 μg · kg^?1, respectively. Conclusion: Fentanyl has a synergistic interaction with both propofol and midazolam on PNA and hence potentially on respiration.     

Influence of dopexamine hydrochloride on haemodynamics and regulators of circulation in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery

Background: Catecholaminergic support is often used to improve haemodynamics in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery. Dopexamine is a synthetic vasoactive catecholamine with beneficial microcirculatory properties. Methods: The influence of perioperative administration of dopexamine on cardiorespiratory data and important regulators of macro- and microcirculation were studied in 30 patients undergoing Whipple pancreaticduodenectomy. The patients received randomized and blinded either 2 μg · kg^?1 · min^?1 of dopexamine (n=15) or placebo (n=15, control group). The infusion was started after induction of anaesthesia and continued until the morning of the first postoperative day. Endothelin-1 (ET-1), vasopressin, atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), and catecholamine plasma levels were measured from arterial blood samples. Measurements were carried out after induction of anaesthesia, 2 h after onset of surgery, at the end of surgery, 2 h after surgery, and on the morning of the first postoperative day. Results: Cardiac index (CI) increased significantly in the dopexamine group (from 2.61±0.41 to 4.57±0.78 1 · min^?1 · m^?2) and remained elevated until the morning of the first postoperative day. Oxygen delivery index (DO₂I) and oxygen consumption index (VO₂I) were also significantly increased in the dopexamine group (DO₂I: from 416±91 to 717±110 ml/m² · m²; VO₂I: from 98±25 to 157±22 ml/m² · m²), being significantly higher than in the control group. pHi remained stable only in the dopexamine patients, indicating adequate splanchnic perfusion. Vasopressive regulators of circulation increased significantly only in the untreated control patients (vasopressin: from 4.37±1.1 to 35.9±12.1 pg/ml; ET-1: from 2.88±0.91 to 6.91±1.20 pg/ml). Conclusion: Patients undergoing major abdominal surgery may profit from prophylactic perioperative administration of dopexamine hydrochloride in the form of improved haemodynamics and oxygenation as well as beneficial influence on important regulators of organ blood flow.     

Systemic analgesia adapted to the children's condition

A concept of balanced analgesia using nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), paracetamol (acetaminophen), opioids, and corticosteroids can also be used in patients with pre-existing illnesses. NSAIDs are the most effective treatment for acute pain of moderate intensity in children; however, these drugs should be avoided in patients at increased risk for serious side effects, e.g. patients with renal impairment, bleeding tendency, or extreme prematurity. NSAIDs can be given with minimal risks to the younger child with mild to moderate asthma, and, in these patients, the use of steroids can be encouraged; in addition to their antiemetic and analgesic action, a beneficial effect on asthma symptoms can be expected. In the non-intubated child with cerebral trauma, exaggerated sedation caused by opioids and increased bleeding tendency caused by NSAIDs must be avoided. In neonates and small infants, the oral administration of sucrose or glucose is helpful to minimize pain reaction during short uncomfortable interventions.