距骨骨软骨损伤的治疗研究进展

距骨骨软骨损伤是运动医学中具有挑战性的疾病之一。临床治疗策略包括保守治疗和手术治疗,保守治疗在儿童患者中效果最佳,对于成人患者常常选择进行手术治疗。目前常见的外科手术治疗方案包括关节镜下骨髓刺激、自体软骨细胞植入、自体骨软骨移植、同种异体骨软骨移植或同种异体青少年软骨微粒移植等。关节镜下骨髓刺激技术(特别是微骨折)适用于较小的病灶,是常见的一线治疗方案,中短期临床疗效令人满意,但长期疗效有待进一步观察。自体骨软骨移植常用于伴有较大囊性病变的距骨骨软骨损伤患者,有着较好的中短期临床疗效,然而术后存在囊肿复发和供区并发症的发生。近年来有大量文献报道其他生物治疗措施,如骨软骨损伤区域注射富含血小板血浆、或者浓缩骨髓细胞等,均有一定的临床疗效。本文对这些技术的应用细节和疗效进行综述,目的是为临床医生能够更好地治疗距骨骨软骨损伤提供依据。     

自体骨－骨膜移植治疗Hepple V型距骨骨软骨损伤的近期疗效

 目的 探讨采用自体骨－骨膜移植治疗Hepple V型距骨骨软骨损伤的近期疗效。方法回顾性分析2007年10月至2011年9月治疗27例合并软骨下骨囊肿(平均直径 >8 mm)的距骨骨软骨损伤患者资料,男26例,女1例;年龄22~53岁,平均35.8岁。经踝关节镜探查明确发生距骨骨软骨损伤后,从自体髂骨取骨－骨膜移植物填充距骨骨软骨缺损区。采用美国足踝外科协会(American Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle Society,AOFAS)踝与后足评分、视觉模拟(visual analogue score,VAS)评分及软骨修复MR评分(MOCART)对手术疗效进行评估;分析术后距骨X线和MRI改变,以及术后二次关节镜探查结果。结果 26例患者获得随访,随访时间为12~59个月,平均22.4个月。术后AOFAS踝与后足评分［(93.0±6.5)分］显著高于术前［(73.9±3.1)分］;术后VAS评分［(0.8±0.8)分］显著低于术前［(5.4±1.0)分］;术后患者非常满意16例,满意8例,一般2例,满意率为92.3%(24/26)。术后患者X线片均示软骨下囊肿低密度区消失,未见关节间隙狭窄;MRI均示原病灶缺损区被移植物填充。MOCART评分平均为(57.2±9.1)分,其中3例软骨下骨内有直径＜ 5 mm的囊肿。18例行二次关节镜探查示原软骨缺损区被再生类软骨组织覆盖。结论 自体骨－骨膜移植可同时修复Hepple V型距骨骨软骨损伤及软骨下囊肿,近期疗效满意,是安全、有效的治疗方法。     

关节镜下微骨折治疗距骨骨软骨损伤的临床观察

目的:采用关节镜下清创和微骨折治疗距骨骨软骨损伤,观察其临床效果。方法:收集自2011年1月至2013年12月就诊的42例距骨骨软骨损伤患者,平均年龄35.9岁,其中男28例,女14例,34例有明确受伤史,MRI显示距骨骨软骨损伤≥3级,采用关节镜下清创和微骨折进行治疗。术前、术后1年和术后2年采用美国足踝外科(AOFAS)踝-后足评分系统评估关节功能,术后2年采用MRI检查评估距骨骨软骨恢复情况。结果 :术前MRI诊断3期23例,4期9例,5期10例。按照9宫格分区法,则骨软骨损伤位于4区25例,6区11例,1区4例,3区2例。伴有软骨下骨囊性变8例,均位于4区。采用美国足踝外科(AOFAS)踝-后足评分系统,术后1年73.3±3.9,较术前50.4±7.8明显提高(t=17.018,P=0.00);术后2年81.1±4.8,较术后1年明显提高(t=8.173,P=0.00)。术后2年复查MRI显示骨髓水肿消失。结论:采用关节镜下微骨折治疗距骨骨软骨损伤,可以较好地改善踝关节功能。     

微骨折术与自体骨填充治疗距骨软骨缺损的对比研究

目的评估关节镜下自体骨填充固定术与关节镜下微骨折术治疗距骨软骨缺损的临床疗效。 方法选取2012年1月至2016年6月因距骨软骨缺损就诊翼中能源峰峰集团有限公司总医院待行关节镜手术的患者，选择缺损直径大于10 mm可经手术修复的年龄为18～70岁的患者，排除合并类风湿性关节炎、踝关节疾病等病史者。共纳入26例患者，根据随机数字法分为观察组(n ＝11)和对照组(n＝15)，分别行关节镜下自体骨填充固定术和关节镜下微骨折术。使用t检验和卡方检验分析对比两组患者的美国矫形外科足踝协会(AOFAS)评分和疼痛数字评分(NRS)和影像学评价等。 结果两组患者术前一般资料差异无统计学意义(P>0.05)。两组均在术后1年完成随访及CT复查，部分完成MRI复查。术前和术后1年，观察组与对照组在休息和运动时，AOFAS评分和NRS评分无明显差异(P>0.05)。对比术前，同一组术后1年的NRS评分有明显改善(观察组t ＝14.65、7.99；对照组t ＝18.59、5.57；均为P <0.01)。两组MRI结果存在不同，两组患者软骨下骨的平整程度有显著差异(χ²＝7.23，P <0.01)。经关节镜下微骨折术后，12例患者见软骨面不平整，3例患者见软骨面平整，关节镜下自体骨填充固定后3例患者见软骨面不平整，8例患者见软骨面平整。 结论两组手术方法可以得到满意的临床疗效，均适合在临床上进一步推广。     

Results of microfracture in the treatment of articular cartilage defects of the talus

BACKGROUND: The microfracture technique has been used successfully for the treatment of cartilage defects in the knee. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the microfracture technique in the treatment of osteochondral and degenerative chondral defects of the talus. METHODS: In a prospective study, 30 ankles in 30 consecutive patients (17 men and 13 women; average age, 41 years; range 20 to 74 years were treated with arthroscopic microfracture. Twenty patients had osteochondral defects and 10 had degenerative chondral defects. Patients were evaluated with clinical examination and MRI preoperatively and at 3, 6, 12, and 24 months postoperatively. RESULTS: At a mean followup of 2 years (range 22 to 27 months), 29 patients were available for follow-up. The results for all ankles according to the Hannover Scoring System were 45% excellent, 38% good, and 17% satisfactory. Results in patients older than 50 years were not inferior to those in younger patients. Visual Analog Score revealed an average of 8 +/- 2 for pain (preoperatively 3 +/- 2; p < or = 0.001), 8 +/- 2 for function (preoperatively 3 +/- 2; p < or = 0.001) and 8 +/- 2 for satisfaction (preoperatively 2 +/- 2; p < or = 0.001). MRI and arthroscopic assessment suggested the presence of cartilage in the microfractured area. CONCLUSIONS: At short-term followup, the microfracture technique appeared to repair severe cartilage damage with a good functional outcome. Age was not shown to be a limiting factor.     

距骨骨软骨损伤的诊断及关节镜治疗

目的 总结、分析距骨骨软骨损伤的症状、体征、影像学特点、关节镜下治疗方法及手术效果.方法 2000年至2005年共收治34例距骨骨软骨损伤患者,对其临床资料包括症状、体征、X线片、MRI表现、关节镜手术方法等进行回顾性分析,术后随访根据主观和客观评分判断疗效.术前美国足踝外科后足评分平均(71±8)分,术前主观疼痛程度评分(7.5±1.3)分.结果 34例患者MRI均有骨软骨损伤征象,其中21例通过X线片检查发现距骨骨软骨损伤.距骨骨软骨损伤的主要症状为负重疼痛以及运动后加重,MRI诊断准确率较X线片高(χ2=16.07,P＜0.001).31例患者获得随访,平均随访时间为28个月.术后美国足踝外科后足评分(91±9)分,显著高于术前(t=9.147,P＜0.001);术后主观疼痛程度评分(2.4±2.3)分,显著低于术前(t=10.853,P＜0.001);临床疗效优良率为87.1%.结论 MRI检查能够提高诊断的正确率,关节镜微创手术治疗距骨骨软骨损伤效果良好.     

自体髂骨移植治疗伴有囊性变的距骨骨软骨损伤

目的:观察采用自体带骨膜髂骨移植治疗伴有软骨下骨囊性缺损的距骨骨软骨损伤的临床疗效。方法 :回顾性分析2011年1月至2014年12月采用自体带骨膜髂骨移植治疗的22例伴有软骨下骨囊性缺损的距骨骨软骨损伤患者的临床资料,其中男18例,女4例;年龄34～58(46.4±6.9)岁;所有患者存在踝关节疼痛肿胀,7例踝关节活动部分受限,2例踝关节不稳,2例后足力线不良。所有患者的距骨骨软骨损伤位于距骨内侧,关节软骨损伤面积为64～132(101.6±27.1) mm~2,囊性病变直径9～15(10.5±1.8) mm。术前,术后12、24个月采用视觉模拟评分(VAS)评估关节疼痛,采用美国足踝外科(AOFAS)踝-后足评分系统评估关节功能。术后12个月取出内踝空心钉的同时行踝关节镜探查评估移植物愈合情况。结果:所有患者获得随访,时间24～60(42.5±9.9)个月。术后12个月MRI显示植骨愈合良好,部分可见散在的小的囊性区域。二次关节镜探查发现,植骨与距骨愈合良好,表面纤维软骨形成良好。术后24个月MRI显示植骨与周围骨质结合良好,仍可见散在的小的囊性区域,但较前有所减少。术后12个月VAS评分2.8±0.8,优于术前6.2±1.5,而与术后24个月2.6±0.8比较差异无统计学意义(P0.05)。术后12个月AOFAS评分83.0±5.6,优于术前55.3±13.7,与术后24个月83.7±6.6比较差异无统计学意义(P0.05)。结论:采用自体带骨膜髂骨移植治疗伴有软骨下骨囊性缺损的距骨骨软骨损伤可以获得良好的骨性愈合和表面纤维软骨形成,有效地缓解了患者的临床症状。     

Arthroscopic treatment of osteochondral lesions of the distal tibia

BACKGROUND: Osteochondral lesions of the tibia are much less frequent than those of the talus, and treatment guidelines have not been established. We hypothesized that arthroscopic treatment methods used for osteochondral lesion of the talus would also be effective for those of the distal tibia. METHODS: A review of 880 consecutive ankle arthroscopies identified 23 patients (2.6%) with osteochondral lesions of the distal tibia. Four patients were excluded because of concomitant acute ankle fractures requiring open reduction and internal fixation and two were lost to followup, leaving 17 in the study. The mean age was 38 (19 to 71) years. Six (35%) had osteochondral lesions of the tibia and talus; 11 had isolated lesions of the distal tibia. Treatment included excision, curettage, and abrasion arthroplasty in all patients. Five patients had transmalleolar drilling of the lesion, two had microfracture, and two had iliac bone grafting. At last followup, patients were evaluated with a questionnaire, physical examination, and ankle radiographs. RESULTS: Mean followup was 44 (24 to 99) months. Preoperatively, the median American Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle Society (AOFAS) Ankle-Hindfoot score was 52; postoperatively, it was 87. Using the Wilcoxon signed-rank test to compare preoperative and postoperative scores, there was significant improvement in the ankle-hindfoot score postoperatively (p < 0.001). Seven patients had excellent results, seven had good results, one had a fair result, and two had poor results. CONCLUSIONS: Osteochondral lesions of the distal tibia present a challenge to the orthopedic surgeon. Arthroscopic treatment by means of debridement, curettage, abrasion arthroplasty, and, in some patients, transmalleolar drilling, microfracture, or iliac crest bone grafting, resulted in excellent and good results in 14 of 17 patients at medium-term followup.     

The cause of subchondral bone cysts in osteoarthrosis: a finite element analysis

BACKGROUND: The etiology of subchondral bone cysts in arthrotic joints is unclear. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We used two-dimensional finite element analysis to evaluate the hypothesis that subchondral bone cysts in the osteoarthrotic hip joint may be the result of microfractures caused by localized cartilage defects or a thinned layer of cartilage. We evaluated the equivalent bone stress (von Mises (VM) stress) in the cancellous bone as an indicator of potential microfractures and further development of cystic lesions. RESULTS: Cartilage defects induced stress peaks in the subchondral bone. This peak stress distribution corresponded to the clinical observation of development of acetabular and femoral subchondral cysts in a "kissing" position. A femoral subchondral bone cyst induced a stress peak at the corresponding acetabular site, whereas subchondral acetabular cysts did not increase stress in the femoral head. Acetabular cysts showed an increased level of stress at the lateral and medial border of the lesion which was much higher than the stress levels in the femoral head, indicating a tendency to faster growth. INTERPRETATION: Our study supports the theory that stress-induced bone resorption may cause development of subchondral bone cysts in osteoarthrosis.     

The cause of subchondral bone cysts in osteoarthrosisA finite element analysis

Background?The etiology of subchondral bone cysts in arthrotic joints is unclear.Materials and methods?We used two-dimensional finite element analysis to evaluate the hypothesis that subchondral bone cysts in the osteoarthrotic hip joint may be the result of microfractures caused by localized cartilage defects or a thinned layer of cartilage. We evaluated the equivalent bone stress (von Mises (VM) stress) in the cancellous bone as an indicator of potential microfractures and further development of cystic lesions.Results?Cartilage defects induced stress peaks in the subchondral bone. This peak stress distribution corresponded to the clinical observation of development of acetabular and femoral subchondral cysts in a “kissing” position. A femoral subchondral bone cyst induced a stress peak at the corresponding acetabular site, whereas subchondral acetabular cysts did not increase stress in the femoral head. Acetabular cysts showed an increased level of stress at the lateral and medial border of the lesion which was much higher than the stress levels in the femoral head, indicating a tendency to faster growth.Interpretation?Our study supports the theory that stress-induced bone resorption may cause development of subchondral bone cysts in osteoarthrosis.     

Extracorporeal Shock Wave Therapy for Pain Relief After Arthroscopic Treatment of Osteochondral Lesions of Talus

Arthroscopic treatment is an effective technique for osteochondral lesion of talus (OLT); however, some patients still suffer pain and limitation of activities after surgery. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of extracorporeal shock wave therapy (ESWT) after ankle arthroscopy for OLT. We reviewed the clinical history of a series of 78 patients with OLT who underwent arthroscopic microfracture. ESWT was prescribed for 15 patients who complained of ankle pain and restriction of weightbearing activities 3 months postoperatively. The parameters assessed were visual analog scale (VAS) and American Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle Society (AOFAS) ankle-hindfoot scale scores (before ESWT, at 6 and 12 weeks, and at last follow-up after ESWT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) before and 1 year after ESWT. Follow-up was 27.8 ± 15.2 months. VAS and AOFAS scores showed a significant improvement at 12 weeks after ESWT and a progressive trend at last follow-up. Areas of lesions in sagittal plane in MRI were distinctly reduced at last follow-up. ESWT for osteochondral lesions of talus after arthroscopy results in good clinical outcomes.     

骨软骨镶嵌成形术修复骨软骨复合缺损的比较研究

目的观察采用骨软骨镶嵌成形术（Mosaicplasty）修复膝关节中等和大面积骨软骨复合缺损的效果,为临床应用提供理论依据。方法24只成年山羊随机分成3组（n=8）。中等面积缺损组在股骨内髁制造直径6mm缺损,植入直径2mm骨软骨柱修复;大面积缺损组于股骨内髁制造9mm直径缺损,以直径3mm骨软骨柱修复;对照组于股骨内髁制造直径6mm缺损后不修复。自股骨髁间窝和滑车沟两侧非负重区用自制Mosaicplasty器械钻取骨软骨柱,推出器嵌入缺损处镶嵌填满。术后4、8、16及24周处死动物,取修复骨软骨组织行大体观察、HE及甲苯胺蓝染色。术后24周,取大面积缺损组和对照组膝关节摄X线片,观察骨软骨缺损修复情况,并分别取修复组织及正常软骨组织行蛋白聚糖（glycosaminogly cans,GAG）含量测定。结果中等面积缺损组术后4周,移植的骨软骨柱与基底部骨床结合牢固;8-24周软骨层之间以及与正常软骨间界限仍清晰。大面积缺损组术后4周,移植的骨软骨柱与基底骨床结合牢固,部分骨软骨柱被压入骨床内;8-24周压陷程度加重,与股骨髁相对关节面的部分软骨被磨损。对照组24周缺损仍无明显修复迹象,与股骨髁相对关节面的软骨磨损剥脱。组织学观察结果类似大体观察,术后24周中等及大面积缺损组软骨柱间均有缝隙存在,大面积缺损组毗邻软骨细胞稀疏肥大。术后24周,X线片可见大面积缺损组软骨下骨愈合良好,而对照组仍可见骨质缺损,与股骨髁相对关节面的软骨局部骨质硬化;软骨GAG含量测定显示正常软骨和大面积缺损组修复组织间差异无统计学意义（P〉0.05）;前两者与对照组修复组织比较,差异均有统计学差异（P〈0.05）。结论Mosaicplasty可修复中等面积骨软骨复合缺损,但无法有效修复大面积缺损,效果有待改进。     

Surgical Treatment for Osteochondral Lesions of the Talus

Osteochondral lesions of the talus (OLT) are often associated with ankle pain and dysfunction. They can occur after ankle trauma, such as sprains or fractures, but they usually present as a continued ankle pain after the initial injury has resolved. Chronic ankle ligament instability and subsequent microtrauma may lead to insidious development of an OLT. Medial-sided lesions are more common (67%) than lateral-sided lesions. For acute lesions that are nondisplaced, nonoperative management is initially performed, with a 4-6 week period of immobilization and protected weight bearing. Symptomatic improvement results in more than 50% of patients by 3 months. Acute osteochondral talus fractures, which have a bone fragment thickness greater than 3 mm with displacement will benefit from early surgical intervention. These injuries should undergo primary repair via internal fixation with bioabsorbable compression screws 3.0 mm or smaller using at least 2 points of fixation. Acute lesions that are too small for fixation can be treated with morselization and reimplantation of the cartilage fragments. If OLTs are persistently symptomatic following an appropriate course of nonoperative treatment, various reparative and restorative surgical options may be considered on the basis of diameter, surface area, depth, and location of the lesion.A small subset of symptomatic osteochondral lesions of the talus involve subchondral pathology with intact overlying articular cartilage; in these cases, retrograde drilling into the cystic lesion can be employed to induce underlying bony healing. Cancellous bone graft augmentation may be used for subchondral cysts with volume greater than 100 mm³ or with those with a depth of more than 10 mm.Debridement, curettage, and bone marrow stimulation is a reparative technique that may be considered in lesions demonstrating a diameter less than 10 mm, with surface area less than 100 mm², and a depth less than 5 mm. This technique is commonly performed arthroscopically using curettes and an arthroscopic shaver to remove surrounding unstable cartilage. A microfracture awl of 1 mm or less is used to puncture the subchondral bone with 3-4 mm of spacing between to induce punctate bleeding. Initial (<5 year) results are good to excellent in 80% of cases, with some deterioration of improvement over time. Factors contributing to poor results include surface area greater than 1.5 cm², overall osteochondral lesion depth over 7.8 mm, smoking history, age over 40, and uncontained lesions.Lesions greater than 1.29 cm², cystic lesions, and lesions that have failed prior treatment are potential candidates for osteochondral autograft transplantation. The autograft is typically harvested from the lateral femoral condyle of the ipsilateral knee with an optimal plug depth and diameter of 12-15 mm. Transplantation often involves open technique and may even require malleolar osteotomy for perpendicular access to the defect, as well as visualization of a flush, congruent graft fit. Good to excellent outcomes have been reported in up 87.4% of cases with the most common complication being donor site morbidity in up to 15% of cases. Failure rates increased significantly in lesions larger than 225 mm².Scaffold-based therapies, such as matrix-associated chondrocyte implantation, can be employed in primary or revision settings in lesions larger than 1 cm², including uncontained shoulder lesions with or without cysts. Lesions with greater than 4 mm of bone loss following debridement may require bone grafting to augment with the scaffold. This technique requires an initial procedure for chondrocyte harvest and a secondary procedure for transplantation of the scaffold. Outcomes have been good to excellent in up to 93% of cases; however, this technique requires a two-stage procedure and can be cost-prohibitive.Particulated juvenile cartilage is a restorative technique that employs cartilage allograft from juvenile donors. The cartilage is placed into the defect and secured with fibrin glue in a single-stage procedure. Studies have shown favorable outcomes in 92% of cases, with lesions between 10 and 15 mm in diameter, but increased failure rates and poorer outcomes in lesions larger than 15 mm. This may be an alternative option for contained lesions between 10 and 15 mm in diameter.Osteochondral allograft plugs are an option for larger contained lesions (>1.5 cm in diameter) and in patients with knee osteoarthritis (OA) and concern for donor site morbidity. Furthermore, bulk osteochondral allograft from a size-matched talus can also be used for even larger, unstable/uncontained shoulder lesions. An anterior approach is often employed and fixation is achieved via placement of countersunk headless compression screws.Failure of the aforementioned options associated with persistent pain or progressive OA would then lend consideration to ankle arthroplasty versus ankle arthrodesis.     

Arthroscopic management of osteoarthritis of the knee

Recent advances in instrumentation and a growing understanding of the pathophysiology of osteoarthritis have led to increased use of arthroscopy for the management of degenerative arthritis of the knee. Techniques include lavage and débridement, abrasion arthroplasty, subchondral penetration procedures (drilling and microfracture), and laser/thermal chondroplasty. In most patients, short-term symptomatic relief can be expected with arthroscopic lavage and débridement. Greater symptomatic relief and more persistent pain relief can be achieved in patients who have acute onset of pain, mechanical disturbances from cartilage or meniscal fragments, normal lower extremity alignment, and minimal radiographic evidence of degenerative disease. Arthroscopic chondroplasty techniques provide unpredictable results. Concerns include the durability of the fibrocartilage repair tissue in subchondral penetration procedures and thermal damage to subchondral bone and adjacent normal articular cartilage in laser/thermal chondroplasty. Although recent prospective, randomized, double-blinded studies have demonstrated that outcomes after arthroscopic lavage or débridement were no better than placebo procedure for knee osteoarthritis, controversy still exists. With proper selection, patients with early degenerative arthritis and mechanical symptoms of locking or catching can benefit from arthroscopic surgery.     

关节镜下钻孔术与微骨折锥术治疗距骨骨软骨损伤的疗效比较

目的比较关节镜下克氏针钻孔术和微骨折锥术治疗小面积距骨骨软骨损伤的疗效。方法回顾性研究自中山大学孙逸仙纪念医院骨科2014年2月至2017年6月收治的57例小面积距骨骨软骨损伤患者资料,根据治疗方法不同分为两组:钻孔组(关节镜下克氏针钻孔术治疗)26例,男15例,女11例;年龄20~57岁;损伤面积0.6~1.4 cm^2;根据Berndt和Harty基于X线片的踝关节骨软骨损伤分期标准:Ⅰ期9例,Ⅱ期8例,Ⅲ期6例,Ⅳ期3例。微骨折组(关节镜下微骨折锥术治疗)31例,男17例,女14例;年龄24~55岁;损伤面积0.5~1.5 cm^2;Berndt和Harty的踝关节骨软骨损伤分期:Ⅰ期10例,Ⅱ期11例,Ⅲ期8例,Ⅳ期2例。通过比较末次随访时的视觉模拟评分(VAS)、美国足踝外科协会(AOFAS)的踝-后足评分、踝关节运动评分(AAS)和Berndt和Harty提出的距骨骨软骨损伤分期评价手术疗效。结果57例患者术后获13~27个月随访。所有患者末次随访时的VAS评分、AOFAS评分、AAS评分、Berndt和Harty提出的距骨骨软骨损伤分级均较术前改善,差异有统计学意义(P<0.05)。末次随访时两组患者的VAS评分[(2.2±1.6)、(2.1±1.4)分]、AOFAS评分[(89.1±6.3)、(90.4±5.8)分]、AAS评分(6、6分)比较差异均无统计学意义(P>0.05)。末次随访时两组患者AOFAS的踝-后足评分优良率分别为88.5%(23/26)和90.3%(28/31),差异无统计学意义(χ^2=0.052,P=0.820)。结论关节镜下克氏针钻孔术和微骨折锥术在治疗小面积距骨骨软骨损伤中均能取得满意的近期疗效,且疗效基本相似,远期疗效有待进一步研究。     

Radiologic case study. Abrasion chondroplasty mimicking avascular necrosis

Arthroscopic abrasion arthroplasty, subchondral drilling, and microfracture continue to be performed with some frequency in younger patients with focal chondral defects and occasionally for patients with moderate degenerative knee arthritis. The plain radiographic appearance after those procedures may mimic avascular necrosis, but MRI is a sensitive method used to exclude the diagnosis of avascular necrosis and evaluate the extent to which fibrocartilaginous repair tissue has formed. When combined with an appropriate clinical history, dedicated articular cartilage imaging sequences improve the sensitivity and specificity that MRI provides in these patients with chondral knee injuries.     

Arthroscopic treatment of osteochondral lesions of the talar dome: a retrospective study of 48 cases.

We treated 48 symptomatic osteochondral lesions of the talar dome arthroscopically. Of these, 18 patients had an osteochondral fracture with a loose fragment located in every case on the anteriolateral side of the talus. Treatment consisted of removal (16 cases) or fixation (2 cases) of the bone fragment. Thirty patients had chronic lesions (27 subchondral necrosis with a sequestrum and 3 extensive cysts). The lesion was posteromedial in 27 cases and the treatment consisted of removal of the sequestrum with curettage of the subchondral bone necrosis (27 cases) or transchondral drilling if the cartilage surface was intact (3 cases). All the patients were clinically and radiogically reviewed with a mean follow-up of 5 years (7 months to 11 years). Patients treated for an osteochondral fracture obtained significant better results (16 excellent or good results out of 18 cases) than those treated for chronic lesions (20 excellent or good results out of 30 cases). On radiographic examination, we noticed that, even at the longest follow-up, the bone healing was usually incomplete and the bone defect persisted indefinitely in case of extensive subchondral bone necrosis. The articular surface could be seen in 11 cases (8 computed arthrotomographies, 1 magnetic resonance imaging, and 2 second-look arthroscopies). The fibrous cartilaginous surface was apparently regular in 6 cases without any clear correlation with our clinical results. This study suggests that we must make a distinction between osteochondral fractures (recent or not healed) located in the anterolateral part of the talar dome, which carry a good prognosis, and necrotic lesions located medially, which are less likely to have a favorable outcome.     

Autologous bone-marrow mesenchymal cell induced chondrogenesis (MCIC)

Degenerative and traumatic articular cartilage defects are common, difficult to treat, and progressive lesions that cause significant morbidity in the general population. There have been multiple approaches to treat such lesions, including arthroscopic debridement, microfracture, multiple drilling, osteochondral transplantation and autologous chondrocyte implantation (ACI) that are currently being used in clinical practice. Autologous bone-marrow mesenchymal cell induced chondrogenesis (MCIC) is a single-staged arthroscopic procedure. This method combines a modified microfracture technique with the application of a bone marrow aspirate concentrate (BMAC), hyaluronic acid and fibrin gel to treat articular cartilage defects. We reviewed the current literatures and surgical techniques for mesenchymal cell induced chondrogenesis.     

Arthroscopic Bone Grafting of Talar Bone Cyst Using Posterior Ankle Arthroscopy

A subchondral cyst of the talus frequently occurs with an osteochondral lesion of the talar dome. Debridement, curettage, and bone grafting through the articular defect was frequently the recommended treatment in reported studies for a massive cyst. We report a case of a massive cyst of the talar body with a small osteochondral lesion of the talar dome. Our patient was successfully treated by curettage and bone grafting of the cyst using posterior ankle arthroscopy, with minimal disruption of the articular surface of the talar dome.