The difference between intramural and arterial partial pressure of carbon dioxide increases significantly during laparoscopic cholecystectomy: the effect of thoracic epidural anesthesia

We studied the effects of pneumoperitoneum on gastric submucosal perfusion metabolism during elective laparoscopic cholecystectomy (LASC) by measuring the PCO(2) gap, defined as the difference between intramucosal PCO(2) and arterial PCO(2), using gas tonometry in 20 patients. Furthermore, we examined whether thoracic epidural anesthesia (TEA) affects gastric submucosal perfusion metabolism during LASC. Patients were randomly allocated to receive general anesthesia (group G, n = 10) or general anesthesia combined with TEA (group E, n = 10). In both groups, the PCO(2) gap increased significantly during pneumoperitoneum and remained at this level until the end of surgery compared with the baseline value. There were no significant differences in PCO(2) gap values between the two groups at any time sampled. These results suggested that pneumoperitoneum significantly impaired gastric submucosal perfusion and metabolism and that TEA did not attenuate the impairment of gastric submucosal perfusion during or after pneumoperitoneum. IMPLICATIONS: We investigated the effect of pneumoperitoneum on gastric submucosal perfusion by measuring PCO(2) gap with the use of gas tonometry. PCO(2) gap significantly increased during and after the pneumoperitoneum compared with the control level. Thoracic epidural anesthesia did not attenuate this inhibition.     

60例腹腔镜下子宫全切除术的麻醉体会

目的:探讨全麻下腹腔镜子宫全切除术中气腹对患者呼吸及循环功能的影响。方法:气腹前、气腹后10min、气腹后30min及放气后监测患者BP、HR、SpO2、Paw的变化情况,并进行统计学分析。结果:术中CO2气腹后患者的BP、HR、Paw与气腹前相比明显增加,差异有统计学意义。结论:腹腔镜子宫全切除术气腹后患者的BP、HR、Paw升高。     

腹腔镜胆囊切除术中不同麻醉方法对应激反应的影响

目的：观察以丙泊酚、瑞芬太尼为主的全凭静脉麻醉对腹腔镜胆囊切除术（laparoscopic cholecystectomy,LC）患者应激反应的影响。方法：将ASA I-II级需行LC的患者随机分成两组（A组丙泊酚、瑞芬太尼诱导并维持,B组丙泊酚、芬太尼诱导异氟醚吸入维持）,每组30例。记录两组麻醉前（T0）、插管后即刻（T1）、气腹后即刻（T2）、气腹后30min（T3）及术毕（T4）的平均动脉压（MAP）、心率（HR）,于T0、T2、T3及术后2h抽取静脉血检测患者血糖、血浆皮质醇、肾上腺素及去甲肾上腺素浓度。结果：T1和T2A组MAP、HR显著低于B组（P〈0.01）。两组血浆皮质醇、肾上腺素及去甲肾上腺素浓度,T2和T3浓度均明显升高（P〈0.01,P〈0.05）,A组患者上升幅度明显低于B组（P〈0.01,P〈0.05）。血糖于T3至T4两组患者均明显升高（P〈0.01,P〈0.05）,,两组间无明显差别。结论：以丙泊酚和瑞芬太尼为主的全凭静脉麻醉,较以异氟醚和芬太尼为主的传统麻醉用于LC,能够更有效的抑制气管插管和二氧化碳气腹所致的应激反应。     

三种麻醉方法对腹腔镜手术二氧化碳气腹期间自主神经活动趋势的影响

目的以心率变异性（heart rate variability，HRV）为观察指标，观察分析不同的麻醉方法对腹腔镜胆囊切除手术（Laparoscopic cholecystectomy，LC）二氧化碳（CO2）气腹期间自主神经活动趋势的影响。方法选择ASAⅠ～Ⅱ级的择期L患者45例，按手术日期分为全身麻醉组（Ⅰ组，对照组）、全身麻醉＋艾司洛尔组（Ⅱ组）和全麻复合硬膜外阻滞组（Ⅲ组），分别在麻醉前，气腹前，气腹后5、10、20及30min观察HRV及血流动力学的变化。结果与气腹前相比，Ⅰ组低频（LF）、低频／高频（LF／HF）在气腹后不同时点均显著升高（P〈0．05）；Ⅱ组LF／HF在气腹后5、10min显著升高（P〈0．05）；Ⅲ组气腹后各时点LF、HF、LF／HF均无显著变化（P〉0．05）。组间比较，Ⅰ组LF、LF／HF在气腹后各时点均显著高于Ⅱ、Ⅲ组（P〈0．05），Ⅱ组LF在气腹后10min显著高于Ⅲ组（P〈0．05），LF／HF在气腹后5、10min显著高于Ⅲ组（P〈0．05）。HF各组间差异无显著性（P〉0．05）。结论艾司洛尔可减轻气腹引起的应激反应，但不能完全阻止其交感活性的增强；全麻复合硬膜外阻滞用于腹腔镜胆囊切除手术，可以抑制气腹引起的交感神经兴奋，维持自主神经的稳定性。     

两种腹腔镜胆囊切除术术式对机体血气参数及PET CO2的影响

目的观察对比气腹腹腔镜与悬吊腹腔镜胆囊切除术对心肺功能正常患者血气分析及呼吸末CO2分压（PET CO2）的影响。方法选择60例心电图、胸部正位片正常的患者,均在全身麻醉下行腹腔镜胆囊切除术,按术式分为气腹组和悬吊组,每组30例。分别于麻醉后5 min（T1）、术中气腹或悬吊后20 min（T2）、术后停气腹或悬吊后30 min（T3）抽取患者足背动脉血行血气分析,记录各个时段动脉血pH值、PaCO2、CO2总量以及T1、T2时段的PET CO2。结果两组术前及术后各项指标差异无统计学意义（P〉0.05）,术中两组间各项指标差异有统计学意义（P〈0.05）。气腹组术前、术中各项指标及术中、术后各项指标比较差异有统计学意义（P〈0.05）,术前、术后比较仅pH值差异有统计学意义（P〈0.05）。悬吊组术前、术中、术后各项指标两两比较差异无统计学意义（P〉0.05）。结论气腹腹腔镜手术对机体血气的影响大于悬吊腹腔镜手术,合并心肺功能障碍、老年患者、预计手术时间长的患者,提倡选择悬吊腹腔镜手术。     

High-dose remifentanil suppresses stress response associated with pneumoperitoneum during laparoscopic colectomy

Purpose

Although laparoscopic surgery is minimally invasive, it produces stress responses to an extent similar to that of conventional laparotomy. Both epidural anesthesia and remifentanil intravenously (i.v.), combined with general anesthesia, provide stable hemodynamics during laparoscopic surgery. However, it has not been elucidated whether epidural anesthesia and remifentanil are associated with suppression of autonomic and neuroendocrine stress responses. This study aimed to clarify whether thoracic epidural anesthesia (TEA) or remifentanil suppresses stress responses during laparoscopic surgery.

Methods

We assigned 60 patients undergoing laparoscopic colectomy to three groups anesthetized with 40 % oxygen–air–sevoflurane plus either TEA (TEA group), continuous infusion of remifentanil 0.25 μg/kg/min [low-dose (LD) group], or 1.0 μg/kg/min [high-dose (HD) group] (n = 20 each group). Plasma concentrations of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), cortisol, antidiuretic hormone (ADH), and catecholamines were measured immediately before anesthesia induction, and 30 and 90 min after the start of pneumoperitoneum.

Results

All groups showed no significant changes in hemodynamics during the course of anesthesia. Compared with TEA, both high-dose and low-dose remifentanil significantly suppressed increases in ACTH, ADH, and cortisol during pneumoperitoneum. Plasma adrenaline showed no significant changes during pneumoperitoneum in any group. Compared with TEA, low-dose remifentanil produced significantly higher plasma concentrations of noradrenaline and dopamine during pneumoperitoneum.

Conclusion

Notwithstanding similar hemodynamic responses in all groups, only high-dose remifentanil suppressed both sympathetic responses and the hypothalamus–pituitary–adrenal axis. This result indicates that of these three anesthesia regimens, high-dose remifentanil seems most suited for laparoscopic surgery.     

Heated, humidified CO2 gas is unsatisfactory for awake laparoscopy.

BACKGROUND: The necessity for general anesthesia represents an impediment to using a laparoscopic approach for some procedures that are otherwise performed with the patient under local anesthesia using a conventional open technique. Heating and humidifying the insufflation gas reportedly reduces perioperative pain associated with a CO2 pneumoperitoneum, thus enabling awake laparoscopy. METHODS: Two cases are reported herein of laparoscopy performed with the patient under local anesthesia using heated, humidified CO2 gas for the pneumoperitoneum. RESULTS: Both patients experienced pain with insufflation of heated, humidified CO2 gas of sufficient magnitude that the procedure could not be performed. The CO2 gas was washed out and replaced with helium gas insufflation with complete resolution of pain. The laparoscopic procedures were accomplished without further discomfort with local anesthesia and using a helium gas pneumoperitoneum. CONCLUSIONS: Heated, humidified CO2 gas insufflation does not reduce pain sufficiently to permit satisfactory performance of laparoscopy with local anesthesia, especially when full volume insufflation is required. Cold, dry helium gas produces no pain. The theory that cold, dry insufflation gas is a source of peritoneal pain during laparoscopy needs to be reassessed.     

腹腔镜胆囊切除术CO2充气时的心血管反应

45例腹腔镜胆囊切除术患者,随机分为全麻组、硬膜外组、硬膜外+阿托品组,观察CO_2气腹建立时的心血管反应。结果表明,全麻下腹腔充气时血压、心率轻度上升,硬膜外阻滞下(T_4～L_1)腹腔充气易诱发严重迷走神经反射。气腹前静注常规剂量阿托品对其反射有一定的抑制作用,而对充气时血压下降的预防效果不明显。为此,必须加强气腹期间监测和管理,合理选择麻醉方法。     

全麻下泌尿外科后腹腔镜手术对患者尿NAG、血β2-微球蛋白的影响

目的探讨全麻下泌尿外科后腹腔镜手术对尿N-乙酰-β-D-氨基葡萄糖苷酶（NAG）、血β2-微球蛋白（β2-MG）的影响。方法 33例气管内插管全身麻醉下行后腹腔镜非肾切除手术患者,对术前和术后0h、24h、48h及72h的血β2-MG、尿NAG指标进行检测,应用统计学方法分析指标动态变化规律,并且比较不同气腹时间与术后各指标变化情况。结果与手术前相比,术后24～48h血β2-MG、尿NAG均有不同程度的增高,术后24～48h达到最高值;术后72h其水平下降明显降低,术前后变化差异具有显著性意义;比较不同气腹时间与各指标变化发现,气腹时间大于60min对血β2-MG、尿NAG、尿肌酐（Cr）影响较明显。结论全麻下实施泌尿外科保留肾脏后腹腔镜手术,可导致患者术后早期血β2-MG、尿NAG水平增高,但这种改变是可逆的,提示泌尿外科后腹腔镜手术可能对肾小球滤过功能及肾小管重吸收功能有一定影响。     

腰-硬联合阻滞复合浅全麻在妇科腹腔镜手术的临床应用研究

目的:探讨腰-硬联合阻滞(combined spinal epidural anesthesia,CSEA)技术辅以静脉浅全麻在妇科腹腔镜手术中的临床麻醉效果及安全性。方法:在腰-硬联合阻滞后分别予以力月西、杜氟合剂、异丙酚辅助麻醉施行腹腔镜妇科手术;回顾分析269例妇科腹腔镜手术的临床麻醉数据,进行统计分析,分析其麻醉效果、副作用。结果:术中麻醉效果良好,镇静充分,DBP、SBP、HR指标在CSEA后10min内有变化但平稳(P>0.05),均在正常范围;CO2气腹后10min与气腹前比较,HR增快,有统计学意义(P<0.05),RR加快、PETCO2升高,有统计学意义(P<0.01),两者变化最为显著,但仍可维持在正常范围,而SpO2变化幅度不显著(P>0.05),在气腹30min后,各项指标均有所改善,排气后10min各项指标与气腹前比较无统计学意义(P>0.05),269例患者均顺利完成妇科腹腔镜手术,无一例发生麻醉并发症及意外。结论:在妇科腹腔镜手术中,应用腰-硬联合阻滞辅以静脉浅全麻,在强化麻醉管理、充分吸氧的前提下能很好的控制血流动力学和呼吸功能的变化而维持正常的生命体征,麻醉效果良好,可在选择适应证的前提下推广应用。     

不同麻醉方式对儿童腹腔镜疝囊高位结扎术应激反应的影响

目的探讨两种麻醉方法对儿童腹腔镜疝高位结扎术（lapamscopic hernia sac high ligation）应激反应的影响。方法ASAⅠ-Ⅱ级择期行腹股疝疝囊高位结扎术患儿60例，年龄6—12岁，随机分为硬膜外麻醉组（E组）和单纯气管内全麻组（G组）各30例。检测术中不同时点血浆皮质醇（Cor）、去甲肾上腺素（NE）、肾上腺素（E）、促肾上腺皮质激素（ACTH）浓度并观察平均动脉压（MAP）和心率（HR）的变化。结果E组各时点Cor、NE、E、ACHT浓度无明显变化（P〉0．05），G组气腹后上述各指标较气腹前明显增高（P〈0．05）且显著高于E组同时点（P〈0．05）（见表2）；E组气腹后平均动脉压及心率变化无统计学意义（P〉0．05），而G组的则显著升高（P〈0．05）；两组患儿气腹10min后PaC02均显著增加（P〈0．05），停气腹后渐恢复至正常，血PH值则变化不明显。结论硬膜外麻醉复合基础麻醉相对于单纯气管内全麻更能有效抑制儿童腹股疝疝囊高位结扎术的应激反应。     

Videoendoscopic endotracheal intubation in the rat: a comprehensive rodent model of laparoscopic surgery

BACKGROUND: Peritoneal absorption of CO(2) during abdominal insufflation in laparoscopy may disrupt the acid-base equilibrium and alter the physiological response to stress. Current nonventilated rodent models of laparoscopy do not manage the CO(2) load of pneumoperitoneum, but ventilated surgical rodent models are invasive (tracheotomy) and may independently induce the inflammatory response. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A comprehensive rodent model of laparoscopy was developed. Rats were randomized to receive anesthesia alone, anesthesia plus CO(2) pneumoperitoneum, or anesthesia plus CO(2) pneumoperitoneum with videoendoscopic intubation and mechanical ventilation. Arterial blood-gas analysis was performed at baseline and after 30 min of intervention. RESULTS: Baseline pH, pCO(2), and HCO(3)(-) arterial blood gas parameters were normal for all rats. After 30 min, pCO(2) and pH changed slightly but remained normal among rats receiving anesthesia alone (pCO(2) = 46.5 +/- 1.9; pH = 7.365 +/- 0.009) whereas animals receiving anesthesia plus CO(2) pneumoperitoneum that were dependent on spontaneous respiration for ventilation developed significant hypercarbic acidosis (pCO(2) = 53.2 +/- 1.9, P < 0.05; pH = 7.299 +/- 0.011, P < 0.001). This acidosis was completely corrected with increased minute ventilation in intubated rats receiving mechanical ventilation (pCO(2) = 36.8 +/- 1.5, P < 0.001; pH = 7.398 +/- 0.011, P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: CO(2) pneumoperitoneum induces significant hypercarbic acidosis in nonventilated rats. Noninvasive endotracheal intubation is feasible in the rat with videoendoscopic assistance. Our noninvasive rodent model of laparoscopic surgery controls for anesthesia- and capnoperitoneum-related acid-base changes and provides an environment in which the biological response to pneumoperitoneum can be studied precisely.     

Intraocular pressure changes during laparoscopy in patients anesthetized with propofol total intravenous anesthesia versus isoflurane inhaled anesthesia

We examined intraocular pressure (IOP) changes during gynecologic laparoscopy performed under either thiopental-isoflurane anesthesia or total IV propofol anesthesia. Forty adult women with no preexisting eye disease scheduled for gynecologic CO(2) insufflation laparoscopy were included in the study. Heart rate, mean arterial blood pressure, peak and plateau airway pressure, ETCO(2), and IOP (using a Schioetz tonometer) were measured at defined intervals during the procedure. IOP decreased significantly after the induction of anesthesia in both groups, and remained so throughout the procedure in the propofol group. In the isoflurane group, however, IOP was increased significantly above the preinduction level after pneumoperitoneum with head-down position. There was no correlation between IOP and blood pressure or airway pressure. In conclusion, propofol total IV anesthesia may be a better choice for laparoscopic surgery should control of IOP be a concern. IMPLICATIONS: In this study, we examined the effect of two anesthetic techniques on the intraocular pressure changes during laparoscopic surgery in healthy subjects. Propofol IV anesthesia protected against increases in intraocular pressure with pneumoperitoneum and head-down position.     

Functional MR Imaging of the Porcine Kidney: Physiologic Changes of Prolonged Pneumoperitoneum

Background:

Increased intraabdominal pressure (IPA) during laparoscopy has been associated with decreased urine output. The purpose of this study was to use a noninvasive MRI technique to measure renal vessel flow velocity and change in differential renal medulla and cortex perfusion during pneumoperitoneum.

Study Design:

Six female farm pigs underwent general endotracheal anesthesia and dynamic imaging following left ventricular (LV) injection of Gd-DTPA, utilizing a dual echo gradient echo sequence. MRI was repeated after three hours of continuous 15 mm Hg pneumoperitoneum in three study pigs and after three hours of monitored general anesthesia without pneumoperitoneum in three control pigs. Renal artery and renal vein flow velocities were calculated using cine phase-contrast technique. Renal perfusion was independently measured by LV injection of radiolabelled microspheres.

Results:

There was a decrease in mean renal vein flow velocity in the pneumoperitoneum group as compared to the control group. During pneumoperitoneum there was a similar percentage reduction in the perfusion of the cortex (-28% ) and medulla (-31% ); this corresponded with a decreased urine output. In addition, radiolabelled microspheres corroborated the similar decrease in both cortical and medullary perfusion rates during pneumoperitoneum.

Conclusions:

Prolonged IAP is associated with a decrease in renal vein flow velocity and urine output. There is a similar decrease in the renal medulla and cortex perfusion rates during pneumoperitoneum of 15 mm Hg.     

硬外复合静脉麻与气管全麻在小儿腹腔镜疝手术的比较

目的对比分析研究硬膜外复合丙泊酚静脉全麻与气管内全麻在小儿腹腔镜疝囊高位结扎手术中的优缺点。方法ASAⅠ-Ⅱ级择期行腹腔镜疝手术患儿40例，年龄在1～12岁，随机分为硬膜外复合丙泊酚静脉全麻组（E组）和气管内插管全麻组（G组）。观察气腹前，气腹后5min，10min，15min，放气后5min的MAP，HR，SpO2，PH，PaCO2，和术毕恢复时间，比较两者麻醉的费用。结果与气腹前比较，E组MAP，HR变化无显著性差异（P〉0．05），G组显著升高（P〈0．05）。两组患儿气腹15min后PaCO2均显著升高（P〈0．05）。停气腹后恢复至气腹前水平。E组麻醉苏醒时间明显快于G组，术后恶心呕吐发生率差异无显著性。E组麻醉费用比G组明显减少。结论硬外复合丙泊酚静脉全麻在小儿腹腔镜疝手术中，可有效抑制应激反应且经济安全，术毕苏醒时间快，苏醒质量好。     

气腹影响肝脏吲哚青绿排泄的实验研究

目的 腹腔镜手术中气腹对机体生理功能的一些影响是已知的。本研究以吲哚青绿（ICG）药代动力学参数作为肝脏血流指数,观察气腹时的变化情况。方法 雄性Wistar大鼠18只,随机分面三组：麻醉组、开腹组、气腹组。气腹压力为8mmHg,ICG（1mg/kg0股静脉给药,进行ICG15min排泄试验。结果 分别测得各组血清ICG含量,开腹组ICG水平虽高于麻醉组,但无统计学差异（P＞0.05）。而所腹组ICG水平显著高于麻醉组及开腹组（P＜0.05）。结论 所腹使ICG排泄降低的结果,证实了腹腔镜手术中气腹压力可减少肝脏血流量。     

Hypercarbia during carbon dioxide pneumoperitoneum.

Patients with cardiopulmonary insufficiency undergoing laparoscopic surgery with carbon dioxide (CO2) pneumoperitoneum may retain CO2 resulting in clinically significant respiratory acidosis. A canine model of pulmonary emphysema induced by papain inhalation was utilized to evaluate the respiratory effects of both CO2 and helium pneumoperitoneum. Prior to papain inhalation and 5 and 8 weeks after initial treatment under general anesthesia, mechanical ventilation was adjusted to maintain the end-tidal CO2 (ETCO2) at 40 mm Hg during baseline and pneumoperitoneum physiologic monitoring periods. Utilizing an analysis of variance, hemodynamic and respiratory physiologic parameters were compared. In this canine model, all dogs demonstrated consistent hypercarbia during CO2 pneumoperitoneum prior to papain treatments, but CO2 retention was significantly increased in the emphysematous state. The occurrence of hypercarbia during CO2 pneumoperitoneum may be underestimated by ETCO2 monitoring as was revealed by an increased PaCO2 (arterial carbon dioxide pressure)-ETCO2 gradient with an increasing time interval between papain exposure and period of physiologic monitoring. Irrespective of the pulmonary condition of the dog, helium pneumoperitoneum did not produce any hypercarbic or acidic changes when compared with the concomitant baseline period of dogs prior to the induction of pneumoperitoneum, thus suggesting that helium pneumoperitoneum may be a reasonable alternative in patients at risk for CO2 retention.     

艾司洛尔对腹腔镜胆囊切除术血流动力学及内分泌的影响

目的:探讨艾司洛尔对腹腔镜手术患者手术期间血流动力学及内分泌的影响。方法:30例全麻下腹腔镜手术患者被随机分为对照组(A组,n=15)和艾司洛尔组(B组,n=15),B组于诱导时经静脉推注艾司洛尔0.5mg/kg,气腹前给予艾司洛尔0.5mg/kg,然后以50μg/kg.m in-1速度持续输注。记录A组与B组患者气腹前(T1)、气腹10m in(T2)、20m in(T3)及放气后10m in(T4)、拔管后(T5)的心率(heart rate,HR)、收缩压(systolic b lood pressure,SBP)、舒张压(d iastolic b lood pressure,DBP)、平均动脉压(m ean arterial pressure,MAP)的改变,同时测定T1~T5血中儿茶酚胺和多巴胺的浓度。结果:A组气腹期间相应时点的SBP、DBP、MAP比T1明显升高(P<0.01);T3时A组儿茶酚胺、多巴胺比T1明显增高(P<0.01),B组上述指标相应时点与T1相比无明显改变。结论:艾司洛尔能很好地稳定气腹引起的血流动力学及内分泌的变化,维持内环境稳定,同时可减少吸入异氟醚最低肺泡有效浓度,缩短拔管时间。     

妇科腹腔镜手术对患者眼内压的影响

目的 观察妇科腹腔镜术中患者眼内压的变化.方法 16例ASA Ⅰ或Ⅱ级妇科腹腔镜手术患者,使用笔式眼压计分别于全麻后5 min、气腹后5 min至气腹结束后15 min测量眼内压,同时观测各时点SBP、DBP、HR的变化.结果 术中各时点SBP、DBP、HR差异无统计学意义.头低位人工气腹开始后眼内压逐渐升高.气腹结束前5 min达最高峰;人工气腹结束恢复平卧位后眼内压逐渐回落至气腹前水平.结论 妇科腹腔镜术中患者眼内压明显升高,有发生视力损害的危险,应重视该类手术患者术中的眼保护.     

Laparoscopic surgery: Pitfalls due to anesthesia, positioning, and pneumoperitoneum

Background Laparoscopic procedures are increasing in number and extensiveness. Many patients undergoing laparoscopic surgery have coexisting disease. Especially in patients with cardiopulmonary comorbidity, pneumoperitoneum and positioning can be deleterious. This article reviews possible pitfalls related to the combination of anesthesia, positioning of the patient, and the influence of pneumoperitoneum in the course of laparoscopic interventions. Methods A literature search using Medline’s MESH terms was used to identify recent key articles. Cross-references from these articles were used as well. Results Patient positioning and pneumoperitoneum can induce hemodynamic, pulmonary, renal, splanchnic, and endocrine pathophysiological changes, which will affect the entire perioperative period of patients undergoing laparoscopic procedures. Conclusion Perioperative management for the estimation and reduction of risk of morbidity and mortality due to surgery and anesthesia in laparoscopic procedures must be based on knowledge of the pathophysiological disturbances induced by the combination of general anesthesia, pneumoperitoneum, and positioning of the patient.