Preoperative biliary drainage for hilar cholangiocarcinoma: which stent should be selected?

The controversy over whether and how to perform preoperative biliary drainage (PBD) in patients with hilar cholangiocarcinoma (HCA) remains unsettled. Arguments against PBD before pancreatoduodenectomy have recently been gaining momentum. However, the complication-related mortality rate is as high as 10% for patients with HCA who have undergone major liver resection, and liver failure is a major cause of postoperative death. This suggests the need for PBD to treat jaundice in HCA patients scheduled for major surgical resection of the liver and that major surgery should be performed only after the recovery of hepatic function. No definite criteria or guidelines outlining indications for PBD are currently available. In patients with HCA, PBD may be performed by either percutaneous transhepatic biliary drainage (PTBD) or endoscopic biliary drainage (EBD). No consensus, however, has been reached regarding which drainage method is more appropriate. No reported study has compared the effectiveness of PTBD, endoscopic biliary stenting (EBS), and endoscopic nasobiliary drainage (ENBD) in patients with HCA. This review summarizes the results of our study comparing the three methods and outlines the preoperative endoscopic management of segmental cholangitis (SC) in HCA patients undergoing PBD.     

Preoperative biliary drainagein hilar cholangiocarcinoma:Whenandhow?简

Hilar cholangiocarcinoma is a tumor of the extrahepatic bile duct involving the left main hepatic duct, the right main hepatic duct, or their confluence. Biliary drainage in hilar cholangiocarcinoma is sometimes clinically challenging because of complexities associated with the level of biliary obstruction. This may result in some adverse events, especially acute cholangitis. Hence the decision on the indication and methods of biliary drainage in patients with hilar cholangiocarcinoma should be carefully evaluated. This review focuses on the optimal method and duration of preoperative biliary drainage (PBD) in resectable hilar cholangiocarcinoma. Under certain special indications such as right lobectomy for Bismuth type IIIA or IV hilar cholangiocarcinoma, or preoperative portal vein embolization with chemoradiation therapy, PBD should be strongly recommended. Generally, selective biliary drainage is enough before surgery, however, in the cases of development of cholangitis after unilateral drainage or slow resolving hyperbilirubinemia, total biliary drainage may be considered. Although the optimal preoperative bilirubin level is still a matter of debate, the shortest possible duration of PBD is recommended. Endoscopic nasobiliary drainage seems to be the most appropriate method of PBD in terms of minimizing the risks of tract seeding and inflammatory reactions.     

Endoscopic ultrasonography-guided biliary drainage: Who,when, which,and how?

Both endoscopic ultrasonography(EUS)-guided choledochoduodenostomy( EUS- CDS) and EUS-guided hepaticogastrostomy(EUS-HGS) are relatively well established as alternatives to percutaneous transhepatic biliary drainage(PTBD). Both EUSCDS and EUS-HGS have high technical and clinical success rates(more than 90%) in high-volume centers. Complications for both procedures remain high at 10%-30%. Procedures performed by endoscopists who have done fewer than 20 cases sometimes result in severe or fatal complications. When learning EUSguided biliary drainage(EUS-BD), we recommend a mentor's supervision during at least the first 20 cases. For inoperable malignant lower biliary obstruction, a skillful endoscopist should perform EUS-BD before EUS-guided rendezvous technique(EUS-RV) and PTBD. We should be select EUS-BD for patients having altered anatomy from malignant tumors before balloon-enteroscope-assisted endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography, EUS-RV, and PTBD. If both EUS-CDS and EUS-HGS are available, we should select EUS-CDS, according to published data. EUSBD will potentially become a first-line biliary drainage procedure in the near future.     

Metastatic lymph nodes in hilar cholangiocarcinoma: does size matter?

AimTo determine the diagnostic efficacy of the size criteria for the detection of metastatic lymph nodes (LN) in patients with hilar cholangiocarcinoma (HCCA).IntroductionLN metastasis is one of the most significant independent prognostic factors in patients with HCCA. Presently, in spite of the well known lack of sensitivity and specificity, one of the most used clinical criteria for nodal metastases is LN size.MethodsPathological slides of 147 patients who had undergone exploration for HCCA were assessed. The size (maximum and short axis diameter) of each single node was retrieved from the pathology report or measured from a section on the glass slide using a stereo microscope and a calibrated ruler integrated in the software. When a metastatic lesion was detected, the proportion of the lesion in relation to LN size was estimated.ResultsOut of 147 patients, 645 LN were retrieved and measured. In all, 106 nodes (16%) showed evidence of metastasis. The proportion of positive nodes was 8% in nodes <5 mm and 37% in nodes >30 mm. Ten per cent of LN smaller than 10 mm were positive, whereas only 23% of LN larger than 10 mm were metastastically involved. No clear cut-off point could be found. Similar results were found for the short axis diameter. In 50% of positive LN, the metastatic lesion accounted for 10% or less of the LN size.ConclusionNo cut-off point could be determined for accurately predicting nodal involvement. Therefore, imaging studies should not rely on LN size when assessing nodal involvement.     

Endoscopic ultrasound-guided biliary drainage: A change in paradigm?

Endoscopic ultrasound-guided biliary drainage(EUS-BD) has been developed as an alternative means of biliary drainage for malignant biliary obstruction(MBO).Compared to percutaneous transhepatic biliary drainage,EUS-BD offers effective internal drainage in a single session in the event of failed endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography and has fewer adverse events(AE). In choosing which technique to use for EUS-BD,a combination of factors appears to be important in decision-making; technical expertise,the risk of AE,and anatomy. With the advent of novel all-in-one EUS-BD specific devices enabling simpler and safer techniques,as well as the growing experience and training of endosonographers,EUS-BD may potentially become a first-line technique in biliary drainage for MBO.     

Duct-to-duct biliary reconstruction after radical resection of Bismuth Ⅲ a hilar cholangiocarcinoma

At present, radical resection remains the only effective treatment for patients with hilar cholangiocarcinoma. The surgical approach for R0 resection of hilar cholangiocarcinoma is complex and diverse, but for the biliary reconstruction after resection, almost all surgeons use Roux-en-Y hepaticojejunostomy. A viable alternative to Roux-en-Y reconstruction after radical resection of hilar cholangiocarcinoma has not yet been proposed. We report a case of performing duct-to-duct biliary reconstruction after radical resection of Bismuth Ⅲa hilar cholangiocarcinoma. End-to-end anastomosis between the left hepatic duct and the distal common bile duct was used for the biliary reconstruction, and a singlelayer continuous suture was performed along the bile duct using 5-0 prolene. The patient was discharged favorably without biliary fistula 2 wk later. Evidence for tumor recurrence was not found after an 18 mo follow- up. Performing bile duct end-to-end anastomosis in hilar cholangiocarcinoma can simplify the complex digestive tract reconstruction process.     

Controversial issues in biliary pancreatitis: When should we perform MRCP and ERCP?

ObjectivesThe majority of bile duct stones (BDS) that cause acute biliary pancreatitis (ABP) pass spontaneously into the duodenum. If not passed, they worsen the prognosis or cause recurrence. Therefore, they must be treated. The purpose of this study was to assess the number and timing of spontaneous passage of BDS using magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography (MRCP) and to determine the effect of this approach on endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP).MethodsSixty patients diagnosed with ABP were evaluated prospectively. MRCP was performed between the 1st and 4th days of an acute attack in all the patients. A control MRCP was performed after 7 days in patients with MRCP-identified choledocholithiasis. Patients in whom BDS were visible on imaging or who showed no decrease in bilirubin or cholestasis enzymes underwent ERCP.ResultsMRCP revealed choledocholithiasis in 20 (33%) of the 60 patients. In the control MRCP imaging, choledocholithiasis was detected in 16 of 20 (80% of those who had stone initially) patients. ERCP was performed in these patients and in 2 patients who did not have BDS on the control MRCP but whose bilirubin values and cholestatic enzyme levels had not decreased. ERCP verified choledocholithiasis in 16 of the 18 patients. The positive predictive value of MRCP was 93.7% (15/16).ConclusionsMRCP performed in the second week in ABP patients with a nonworsening prognosis and a suspicion of choledocholithiasis will give more specific results. This will avoid unnecessary ERCP and the potential morbidity and mortality that can develop with this invasive procedure.     

Delay in surgical treatment of patients with hilar cholangiocarcinoma: does time impact outcomes?

BackgroundSubstantial time elapses before patients with hilar cholangiocarcinoma (HCC) receive surgical treatment because of time-consuming preoperative staging and other interventions, including biliary drainage and portal vein embolization. Prolonged times potentially lead to unresectability and the formation of metastases, yet these issues have not been investigated previously in HCC. This study aimed to evaluate the time between onset of symptoms and the provision of ultimate treatment in patients with HCC and the impact of the length of time on outcomes.MethodsDelays in the treatment of consecutive patients with HCC were evaluated by contacting general practitioners (GPs) and extracting data from hospital files. Time periods were correlated with resectability, occurrence of metastasis, tumour stage and survival using logistic and Cox regression analyses.ResultsTreatment times in 209 consecutive HCC patients were evaluated. The median time from first GP visit until presentation at the tertiary centre was 35 days. Time until treatment was longer when initial symptoms did not include jaundice (non-specific symptoms, P < 0.001). Duration of workup and preoperative biliary drainage at the tertiary centre prior to final surgical treatment resulted in an additional median time of 74 days. No correlation was found between treatment time in weeks and resectability [odds ratio (OR) 1.010, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.985–1.036], metastasis (OR = 0.947, 95% CI 0.897–1.000), tumour stage (OR = 1.006, 95% CI 0.981–1.031) or survival in resected patients (hazard ratio = 0.996, 95% CI 0.975–1.018).ConclusionsThe time that elapses between the presentation of symptoms and final treatment in patients with HCC is substantial, especially in patients with non-specific symptoms. This time, however, does not affect resectability, metastasis, tumour stage or survival, which suggests that preoperative optimization should not be omitted because of potential delays in treatment.     

Endoscopic ultrasound-guided biliary drainage: Are we there yet?

Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) is the mainstay procedure of choice for management of obstructive biliary disease. While ERCP is widely performed with high success rates, the procedure is not feasible in every patient such as cases of non-accessible papilla. In the setting of unsuccessful ERCP, endoscopic ultrasound-guided biliary drainage (EUS-BD) has become a promising alternative to surgical bypass and percutaneous biliary drainage (PTBD). A variety of different forms of EUS-BD have been described, allowing for both intrahepatic and extrahepatic approaches. Recent studies have reported high success rates utilizing EUS-BD for both transpapillary and transluminal drainage, with fewer adverse events when compared to PTBD. Advancements in novel technologies designed specifically for EUS-BD have led to increased success rates as well as improved safety profile for the procedure. The techniques of EUS-BD are yet to be fully standardized and are currently performed by highly trained advanced endoscopists. The aim of our review is to highlight the different EUS-guided interventions for achieving biliary drainage and to both assess the progress that has been made in the field as well as consider what the future may hold.     

Atherectomy for calcified coronary lesions: When and how?

• Percutaneous coronary intervention of heavily calcified lesions can be challenging.
• Although the ROTAXUS trial did not demonstrate long‐term clinical benefit with routine rotational atherectomy, atherectomy remains an indispensable tool to achieve acute procedural success.
• Until new data becomes available determining when and how to optimally use coronary atherectomy depends heavily on personal experience and clinical judgment.

     

Local surgical resection of hilar cholangiocarcinoma: Is there still a place?

In recent decades, surgical treatment of hilar cholangiocarcinoma has moved toward liver surgery in association with biliary resection in order to increase radicality and to achieve better survival. Results of local resection compared with hepatectomy associated with bile duct resection and its actual indications have to be clarified. A systematic review of relevant studies published before December 2007 was performed. Original published studies comparing the results of isolated local excision with those of hepatectomy associated with bile duct resection were identified and the reported results were synthesized. The pathologic data suggest that isolated bile duct resection cannot be adequate: required wide surgical margins; neoplastic extension along perineural sheaths; Segment 1 neoplastic invasion. Considering postoperative outcomes, in the 1990s, local resection had significantly lower mortality rates than liver resection. In recent years, the short-term results of liver surgery have improved significantly, while mortality rates have decreased. The R0 resection rate is significantly higher after associated liver resection. Comparison of survival results between local resection and associated liver surgery is difficult because, in the majority of series, the treatment was planned according to tumor extension. Better long-term outcomes have been reported after liver resection than after isolated bile duct resection, even for Bismuth-Corlette type I-II cholangiocarcinoma. Long-term survivors after local resection have been reported in a few selected patients with Bismuth-Corlette type I Tis-T1 or papillary neoplasm.     

Celiac plexus neurolysis in the management of unresectable pancreatic cancer: When and how?

Pancreatic cancer is the second most common abdominal cancer in North America with an estimated 20% resectability at diagnosis, and overall 5-year survival of 5%. Pain is common in pancreatic cancer patients with 70%-80% suffering substantial pain. Celiac plexus neurolysis (CPN) is a technique that can potentially improve pain control in pancreatic cancer while preventing further escalation of opioid consumption. CPN is performed by injecting absolute alcohol into the celiac plexus neural network of ganglia. This review sets out to explore the current status of CPN in non-resectable pancreatic cancer. We will examine: (1) the efficacy and safety of percutaneous-CPN and endoscopic ultrasound guided-CPN; (2) specific technique modifications including bilateral (vs central) injections and celiac ganglia neurolysis; and (3) the issue of CPN timing, early at pancreatic cancer diagnosis vs traditional late use as salvage therapy.     

Esophageal resection for high-grade dysplasia and intramucosal carcinoma: When and how?

High-grade dysplasia (HGD) and intramucosal carcinoma (IMC) in the setting of Barrett’s esophagus have traditionally been treated with esophagectomy. However, with the advent of endoscopic mucosal resection and endoscopic ablative therapies, endoscopic therapy at centers with expertise is now an established treatment of Barrett’s-esophagus-related neoplasia, including HGD and IMC. Esophagectomy is today reserved for more selected cases with submucosal invasion, evidence for lymph node metastasis, or unsuccessful endoscopic therapy.     

Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography drainage for palliation of malignant hilar biliary obstruction — stent-in-stent or side-by-side? A systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUNDBiliary drainage, either by the stent-in-stent (SIS) or side-by-side (SBS) technique, is often required when treating a malignant hilar biliary obstruction (MHBO). Both methods differ from each other and have distinct advantages.AIMTo compare both techniques regarding their efficacy and safety in achieving drainage of MHBO.METHODSA comprehensive search of multiple electronic databases (MEDLINE, Embase, LILACS, BIREME, Cochrane) was conducted and grey literature from their inception until December 2020 with no restrictions regarding the year of publication or language, since there was at least an abstract in English. The included studies compared SIS and SBS techniques through endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography. Outcomes analyzed included technical and clinical success, early and late adverse events (AEs), stent patency, reintervention, and procedure-related mortality.RESULTSFour cohort studies and one randomized controlled trial evaluating a total of 250 patients (127 in the SIS group and 123 in the SBS group) were included in this study. There were no statistically significant differences between the two groups concerning the evaluated outcomes, except for stent patency, which was higher in the SIS compared with the SBS technique [mean difference (d) = 33.31; 95% confidence interval: 9.73 to 56.90, I² = 45%, P = 0.006].CONCLUSIONThe SIS method showed superior stent patency when compared to SBS for achieving bilateral drainage in MHBO. Both techniques are equivalent in terms of technical success, clinical success, rates of both early and late AEs, reintervention, and procedure-related mortality.     

Resection of hilar cholangiocarcinoma — a European and United States experience

Improvements in preoperative imaging, patient selection, and refined operative techniques have allowed a more radical surgical approach to hilar cholangiocarcinoma. A total of 269 patients with histologically proven cholangiocarcinoma were treated during a 20‐year period under the direction of one surgeon (LHB) over three separate time periods in different institutions: 131 patients at the Hepatobiliary Unit of Hammersmith Hospital, London, England, from January 1977 to September 1985; 48 patients at Inselspital, University of Bern, Switzerland, between October 1986 and October 1990; and 90 patients at Memorial Sloan‐Kettering Cancer Center, New York, between March 1991 and April 1997. An increase in the use of concomitant hepatectomy was noted over these time periods, paralleled by an increase in achieving negative margins and in survival. Hilar cholangiocarcinoma should not be considered an incurable disease, but patients should be aggressively evaluated for possible curative resection before any intervention is performed. Good long‐term results can be achieved and cure is possible provided a complete tumor resection with negative margins is obtained.     

Prognostic value of lymphovascular invasion in Bismuth-Corlette type Ⅳ hilar cholangiocarcinoma

AIM To assess the prognostic value of lymphovascular invasion(LVI)in Bismuth-Corlette typeⅣhilar cholangiocarcinoma(HC)patients. METHODS A retrospective analysis was performed on 142consecutively recruited typeⅣHC patients undergoing radical resection with at least 5 years of followup.Survival analysis was performed by the KaplanMeier method,and the association between the clinicopathologic variables and survival was evaluated by log-rank test.Multivariate analysis was adopted to identify the independent prognostic factors for overall survival(OS)and disease-free survival(DFS).Multiple logistic regression analysis was performed to determine the association between LVI and potential variables. RESULTS LVI was confirmed histopathologically in 29(20.4%)patients.Multivariate analysis showed that positive resection margin(HR=6.255,95%CI:3.485-11.229,P0.001),N1 stage(HR=2.902,95%CI:1.132-7.439,P=0.027),tumor size30 mm(HR=1.942,95%CI:1.176-3.209,P=0.010)and LVI positivity(HR=2.799,95%CI:1.588-4.935,P0.001)were adverse prognostic factors for DFS.The independent risk factors for OS were positive resection margin(HR=6.776,95%CI:3.988-11.479,P0.001),N1 stage(HR=2.827,95%CI:1.243-6.429,P=0.013),tumor size30 mm(HR=1.739,95%CI:1.101-2.745,P=0.018)and LVI positivity(HR=2.908,95%CI:1.712-4.938,P0.001).LVI was associated with N1 stage and tumor size30 mm.Multiple logistic regression analysis indicated that N1 stage(HR=3.312,95%CI:1.338-8.198,P=0.026)and tumor size30 mm(HR=3.258,95%CI:1.288-8.236,P=0.013)were associated with LVI. CONCLUSION LVI is associated with N1 stage and tumor size30mm and adversely influences DFS and OS in typeⅣHC patients.