Cognitive-behavioral group therapy for obsessive-compulsive disorder: a 1-year follow-up

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to evaluate the results of cognitive-behavioral group therapy (CBGT) for obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) over a 1-year follow-up period. METHOD: Forty-two OCD patients, who completed 12 sessions of CBGT, were followed for 1 year. Measures of the severity of symptoms were obtained at the end of the acute treatment and at 3, 6, and 12 months post-treatment using the Yale-Brown obsessive-compulsive scale (Y-BOCS) and the clinical global impression (CGI). RESULTS: The reduction in the severity of symptoms observed at the end of the treatment was maintained during 1 year (F2,41=1.1; P=0.342). Eleven patients (35.5%) relapsed in the follow-up period. The intensity of improvement (log rank=12.97, GL=1, P=0.0003) and full remission (log rank=6.17; GL=1; P=0.001) were strong predictors for non-relapsing. CONCLUSION: The CBGT is an effective treatment for OCD and its results are maintained for 1 year. However, further long-term randomized controlled trials are needed in order to confirm this finding.     

Metacognitive therapy for obsessive-compulsive disorder: a case series

Cognitive-behavior therapy and exposure and response prevention are the most effective psychological treatments for obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD). However, these approaches often produce variable results with the majority of treated individuals remaining symptomatic. This study evaluated a new form of cognitive therapy based on Wells’ metacognitive model of OCD. Treatment efficacy was assessed using single case methodology in 4 consecutively referred individuals. At post-treatment, all participants made clinically significant change on a range of standardized outcome measures and these gains were largely maintained through to 6-month follow-up. Metacognitive therapy could be an effective and time efficient treatment for OCD.     

Behavioral inhibition and obsessive-compulsive disorder

Behavioral inhibition is frequently cited as a vulnerability factor for development of anxiety. However, few studies have examined the unique relationship between behavioral inhibition and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). Therefore, the current study addressed the relationship between behavioral inhibition and OCD in a number of ways. In a large unselected student sample, frequency of current OC symptoms was significantly correlated with retrospective self-reports of total levels of childhood behavioral inhibition. In addition, frequency of current OC symptoms was also significantly correlated with both social and nonsocial components of behavioral inhibition. Further, there was evidence for a unique relationship between behavioral inhibition and OC symptoms beyond the relationship of behavioral inhibition and social anxiety. In addition, results showed that reports of childhood levels of behavioral inhibition significantly predicted levels of OCD symptoms in adulthood. Finally, preliminary evidence suggested that behavioral inhibition may be more strongly associated with some types of OC symptoms than others, and that overprotective parenting may moderate the impact of behavioral inhibition on OC symptoms. The current findings suggest the utility of additional research examining the role of behavioral inhibition in the etiology of OCD.     

Cognitive behavior therapy in medication non-responders with obsessive-compulsive disorder: a prospective 1-year follow-up study

Evidence of efficacy of cognitive behavior therapy (CBT) in obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD) non-responsive to multiple trials of serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SRI) is limited. We examined the efficacy of CBT in 31 adult patients with DSM-IV OCD who were non-responders to at least two SRI trials. They received 20–25 sessions of CBT over 3-month duration. The primary outcome measure was “response” to treatment [Clinical Global Impressions-Improvement score 1 or 2 and ≥35% reduction in Yale-Brown Obsessive–Compulsive Scale (Y-BOCS) severity score]. Patients were assessed at baseline, post-treatment and at 3-, 6- and 12-month follow-up. Twenty-six (84%) patients completed treatment and number of responders at post-treatment, 3-, 6- and 12-month follow-up were 23 (74%), 20 (64%), 20 (64%) and 19 (61%) respectively. Quality of homework compliance and baseline Y-BOCS severity predicted remission (Y-BOCS < 16) to CBT. CBT is useful in OCD non-responsive to multiple trials of SRI.     

Association of temporal lobe epilepsy and obsessive-compulsive disorder in a patient successfully treated with right temporal lobectomy

A patient who developed obsessive-compulsive symptoms shortly after the onset of temporal lobe epilepsy exhibited almost complete remission after being rendered seizure-free by surgical intervention. These data support the hypothesis that temporal lobe epilepsy and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) share at least some pathophysiological components. The diagnosis of temporal lobe epilepsy was made by ictal video/EEG recordings, concordant with the presence of a lesion in the posterior region of the temporobasal neocortex. The OCD was diagnosed on the basis of DSM-IV-TR criteria through a clinical interview while the intensity of the OCD symptoms was assessed with the Yape-Brown Obsessive-Compulsive Scale. Surgical intervention consisted of a complete lesionectomy in association with a right temporal lobectomy including both lateral and mesial structures. The patient had follow-up visits after 6 months and 1 year. At both times, the patient remained free of seizures and reported a progressive reduction in OCD symptomatology.     

Scrupulosity in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder: relationship to clinical and cognitive phenomena

Scrupulosity is often encountered among individuals with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), yet relatively few studies have examined this particular symptom presentation. Using a large sample of OCD patients, the present investigation examined (a) the relationship between religiosity and scrupulosity, (b) the association between scrupulosity and the severity of OCD, anxiety, and depressive symptoms, and (c) the connection between scrupulosity and cognitive domains related to OCD. Scrupulosity was correlated with obsessional symptoms and several cognitive domains of OCD, including beliefs about the importance of, and need to control intrusive thoughts, an inflated sense of responsibility, and moral thought-action fusion. These results are examined in terms of cognitive behavioral conceptualizations of OCD and the treatment implications of these findings are discussed.     

Group cognitive behavioural therapy for obsessive-compulsive disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Objective: Behaviour therapy with exposure and response prevention (ERP) or cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) including ERP are considered the psychological treatments of choice for obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD), but group CBT/ERP has received relatively little research attention in the treatment of OCD. The aim of this study was to provide a meta‐analysis of the effectiveness of group CBT/ERP for OCD. Method: A systematic literature search was conducted and studies were meta‐analysed by means of the Cochrane Review Manager Program with measures of i) pre‐ to post‐effect sizes (ES) and ii) between‐group ES in comparison with different control conditions. Outcome was primarily measured on the Y‐BOCS and ES was calculated in the form of Cohens d. Results: Thirteen trials were included in the meta‐analysis. The overall pre–post‐ES of these trials of 1.18 and a between‐group ES of 1.12 compared with waiting list control in three randomized controlled studies indicate that group CBT/ERP is an effective treatment for OCD. Group CBT achieved better results than pharmacological treatment in two studies. One study found no significant differences between individual and group CBT. Conclusion: Group CBT is an effective treatment for OCD, but more studies are needed to compare the effectiveness of group and individual treatment formats.     

Differences between early and late drop-outs from treatment for obsessive-compulsive disorder

To examine characteristics of drop-outs from treatment for obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD), we studied 121 participants who underwent exposure or cognitive treatment, either alone or with fluvoxamine. OCD symptoms were assessed at pre-treatment, post-treatment, and at every session. No differences in attrition were found between treatment conditions. Drop-outs from treatment (n = 31) were divided into early (before session 6) and late (session 6 or after) drop-outs. We found that early drop-outs had more severe OCD symptoms at termination compared to completers, whereas late drop-outs did not differ from treatment completers. Higher levels of depressive symptoms were associated with early drop-outs, and lower levels with completers. These findings suggest that individuals with high levels of pretreatment depression are at risk for early drop-out with elevated OCD symptoms. Conversly, late drop-outs may be treatment responders who drop out after experiencing substantial improvement. Implications for allocation of resources for attrition prevention are discussed.     

Family-based cognitive-behavioral therapy for pediatric obsessive-compulsive disorder: comparison of intensive and weekly approaches

OBJECTIVE: To examine the relative efficacy of intensive versus weekly cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) for children and adolescents with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). METHOD: Forty children and adolescents with OCD (range 7-17 years) were randomized to receive 14 sessions of weekly or intensive (daily psychotherapy sessions) family-based CBT. Assessments were conducted at three time points: pretreatment, posttreatment, and 3-month follow-up. Raters were initially blind to randomization. Primary outcomes included scores on the Children's Yale-Brown Obsessive-Compulsive Scale, remission status, and ratings on the Clinical Global Impression-Severity and Clinical Global Improvement scales. Secondary outcomes included the Child Obsessive Compulsive Impact Scale-Parent Rated, Children's Depression Inventory, Multidimensional Anxiety Scale for Children, and Family Accommodation Scale. Adjunctive pharmacotherapy was not an exclusion criterion. RESULTS: Intensive CBT was as effective as weekly treatment with some advantages present immediately after treatment. No group differences were found at follow-up, with gains being largely maintained over time. Although no group x time interaction was found for the Children's Yale-Brown Obsessive-Compulsive Scale (F(1,38) = 2.2, p = .15), the intensive group was rated on the Clinical Global Impression-Severity as less ill relative to the weekly group (F(1,38) = 9.4, p < .005). At posttreatment, 75% (15/20) of youths in the intensive group and 50% (10/20) in the weekly group met remission status criteria. Ninety percent (18/20) of youths in the intensive group and 65% (13/20) in the weekly group were considered treatment responders on the Clinical Global Improvement (chi1(2) = 3.6, p = .06). CONCLUSIONS: Both intensive and weekly CBT are efficacious treatments for pediatric OCD. Intensive treatment may have slight immediate advantages over weekly CBT, although both modalities have similar outcomes at 3-month follow-up.     

D-cycloserine augmented exposure therapy for obsessive-compulsive disorder.

BACKGROUND: D-cycloserine (DCS), a glutamatergic partial N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) agonist, can facilitate extinction learning related to cued fear in animals and humans. We predicted that DCS would accelerate obsession-related distress reduction in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) undergoing extinction-based exposure therapy. METHODS: We administered DCS (125 mg) or placebo in a double-blind fashion to individuals with OCD approximately 2 hours before each exposure session. RESULTS: D-cycloserine decreased both the number of exposure sessions required to achieve clinical milestones and the rate of therapy dropout. After four exposure sessions, patients in the DCS group reported significantly greater decreases in obsession-related distress compared with the placebo group; however, after additional sessions, the placebo group tended to catch up. CONCLUSIONS: D-cycloserine augmentation has the potential to increase the efficiency, palatability, and overall effectiveness of standard exposure therapy for OCD.     

Group behavioral therapy for adolescents with tic-related and non-tic-related obsessive-compulsive disorder

Prior research supports the distinction between tic-related and non-tic-related obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) based on phenomenologic, etiologic, and neurobehavioral data. The present study examines whether response to psychosocial treatment differs in adolescents, depending on the presence of comorbid tics. Nineteen adolescents, 12-17 years of age, participated in 7-week, uncontrolled trial of group cognitive-behavioral treatment (CBT) for OCD. Eight of the patients had tic-related and eleven had non-tic-related OCD. The group CBT program included psycho-education, exposure and response prevention, cognitive strategies, and family involvement. Significant improvement was observed for all subjects on the Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale ratings of obsessions, compulsions, and total OCD symptoms. Outcomes were similar for subjects with tic-related and non-tic-related OCD. These preliminary results suggest that the presence of comorbid tic disorders may not attenuate response to behavioral group treatment among adolescents.     

Preliminary investigation of web-camera delivered cognitive-behavioral therapy for youth with obsessive-compulsive disorder

This study reports a waitlist controlled randomized trial of family-based cognitive-behavioral therapy delivered via web-camera (W-CBT) in children and adolescents with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). Thirty-one primarily Caucasian youth with OCD (range = 7-16 years; 19 male) were randomly assigned to W-CBT or a Waitlist control. Assessments were conducted immediately before and after treatment, and at 3-month follow-up (for W-CBT arm only). Primary outcomes included the Children's Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale (CY-BOCS), clinical global improvement rates, and remission status. When controlling for baseline group differences, W-CBT was superior to the Waitlist control on all primary outcome measures with large effect sizes (Cohen's d ≥ 1.36). Thirteen of 16 youth (81%) in the W-CBT arm were treatment responders, versus only 2/15 (13%) youth in the Waitlist arm. Similarly, 9/16 (56%) individuals in the W-CBT group met remission criteria, versus 2/15 (13%) individuals in the Waitlist control. Gains were generally maintained in a naturalistic 3-month follow-up for those randomized to W-CBT. This preliminary study suggests that W-CBT may be helpful in reducing obsessive-compulsive symptoms in youth with OCD. Given considerable access issues, such findings hold considerable promise for treatment dissemination.     

Cognitive-behavioral family treatment for childhood obsessive-compulsive disorder: A 7-year follow-up study

This study evaluated the long-term durability of individual and group cognitive-behavioral family-based therapy (CBFT) for childhood obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). Thirty-eight participants (age 13–24 years) from a randomized controlled trial of individual or group CBFT for childhood OCD were assessed 7 years post-treatment. Diagnostic, symptom severity interviews and self-report measures of OCD, anxiety, and depression were administered. Seven years after treatment, 79% of participants from individual therapy and 95% from group therapy had no diagnosis of OCD. These results are near identical to results found at 12 and 18 months follow-ups of the same sample. No significant differences were found between treatment conditions, self-reports of symptom severity, except that depressive symptoms were significantly more pronounced for individual treatment condition, and those in the older age group (19–24 years of age). Results suggest that CBFT for obsessive-compulsive disorder is effective 7 years post-treatment.     

Symptom dimensions in obsessive-compulsive disorder: prediction of cognitive-behavior therapy outcome

OBJECTIVE: A significant number of patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) fail to benefit sufficiently from treatments. This study aimed to evaluate whether certain OCD symptom dimensions were associated with cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) outcome. METHOD: Symptoms of 104 CBT-treated in-patients with OCD were assessed with the clinician-rated Yale-Brown Obsessive-Compulsive Scale symptom checklist. Logistic regression analyses examined outcome predictors. RESULTS: The most frequent OCD symptoms were aggressive and contamination obsessions, and compulsive checking and cleaning. Patients with hoarding symptoms at baseline (n = 19) were significantly less likely to become treatment responders as compared to patients without these symptoms. Patients with sexual and religious obsessions tended to respond less frequently, although this failed to reach statistical significance (P = 0.07). Regression analyses revealed that higher scores on the hoarding dimension were predictive of non-response, even after controlling for possible confounding variables. CONCLUSION: Our results strongly indicate that in-patients with obsessive-compulsive hoarding respond poorly to CBT.     

The children's Yale-Brown obsessive-compulsive scale: psychometric properties of child- and parent-report formats

The children's Yale-Brown obsessive-compulsive scale (CY-BOCS) is a commonly used, psychometrically sound clinician-rated instrument of pediatric obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) severity. Given the relatively direct rating format and potential benefits of alternative versions that could be easily administered to patients and parents, we developed and examined the psychometric properties of child- and parent-report formats of the CY-BOCS severity items. A total of 53 children and adolescents (8-17 years old) with OCD and their parents was administered the CY-BOCS, children's Yale-Brown obsessive-compulsive scale-child report (CY-BOCS-CR), children's Yale-Brown obsessive-compulsive scale-parent report (CY-BOCS-PR), and other measures of obsessive-compulsive symptoms, internalizing, and externalizing symptoms. In general, reliability and convergent and divergent validity of the CY-BOCS-CR/PR were satisfactory. Psychometric properties for the CY-BOCS-CR in those children and adolescents with externalizing behavior problems were lower relative to those without externalizing problems. Exploratory factor analyses identified a two-factor structure in both measures comprised of disturbance and severity factors. This study provides preliminary support for the use of child- and parent-report versions of the CY-BOCS.     

Predictors of treatment outcome in modular cognitive therapy for obsessive-compulsive disorder

Background: The present study sought to identify predictors of outcome for a comprehensive cognitive therapy (CT) developed for patients with obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD). Methods: Treatment was delivered over 22 sessions and included standard CT methods, as well as specific strategies designed for subtypes of OCD including religious, sexual, and other obsessions. This study of 39 participants assigned to CT examined predictors of outcomes assessed on the Yale‐Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale. A variety of baseline symptom variables were examined as well as treatment expectancy and motivation. Results: Findings indicated that participants who perceived themselves as having more severe OCD at baseline remained in treatment but more severe symptoms were marginally associated with worse outcome for those who completed therapy. Depressed and anxious mood did not predict post‐test outcome, but more Axis I comorbid diagnoses (mainly major depression and anxiety disorders), predicted more improvement, as did the presence of sexual (but not religious) OCD symptoms, and stronger motivation (but not expectancy). A small rebound in OCD symptoms at 1‐year follow‐up was significantly predicted by higher scores on personality traits, especially for schizotypal (but not obsessive–compulsive personality) traits. Conclusions: Longer treatment may be needed for those with more severe symptoms at the outset. CT may have positive effects not only on OCD symptoms but also on comorbid depressive and anxious disorders and associated underlying core beliefs. Findings are discussed in light of study limitations and research on other predictors. Depression and Anxiety, 2011. © 2011 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Self-, parent-report and interview measures of obsessive-compulsive disorder in children and adolescents

Self-report measures of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) in children and adolescents are needed for practical evaluation of severity and treatment response. We compared the self- and parent-report Obsessional Compulsive Inventory Revised (CHOCI-R) to the interview-based Child Yale-Brown Obsessive-Compulsive Scale (CY-BOCS) in a clinical sample of 285 children and adolescents with OCD. Classical test theory and item-response theory were applied to compare the instruments. The self- and parent-report CHOCI-R had good internal consistency and were strongly related to each other. The self- and parent-report CHOCI-R severity scores correlated with the CY-BOCS (Pearson's r 0.55 and 0.45 respectively). The CY-BOCS discriminated better at the severe end of the spectrum. The CHOCI-R provided better discrimination in the mild to moderate range. The time-efficient self- and parent-report alternatives will enable routine measurement of OCD severity in clinical practice. Estimates of equivalent summed scores are provided to facilitate comparison.     

Group behavioral therapy of obsessive-compulsive disorder: seven vs. twelve-week outcomes.

Previous research has demonstrated that individualized behavioral exposure and response prevention therapy is an effective treatment for Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder. In our prior preliminary report, 7-week group exposure and response prevention therapy was also found effective in reducing obsessions and compulsions. The present report describes a larger sample (N=113) of treatment seeking obsessive-compulsives who received group behavioral therapy. As before, group exposure and response prevention significantly improved ratings of obsessions, compulsions, and depression. These improvements were maintained at 3-month and long-term follow-up. A sub-sample of patients who received 12 weeks of treatment had outcomes at the end of the group and at follow-up that did not significantly differ from those who received 7 weeks of treatment. These results confirm the efficacy of a 7-week behavioral treatment program administered in a group format.     

Overlapping and Distinctive Features of Hypochondriasis and Obsessive–Compulsive Disorder

The spectrum of obsessive–compulsive disorders has received a great deal of theoretical attention, but there has been relatively little associated empirical research. The purpose of this study was to compare three groups of patients; those diagnosed with hypochondriasis (HC, a proposed spectrum condition), obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD) and those with both OCD and HC (OCD/HC). The results show that patients with HC scored highest on a measure of overvalued ideas, and that the HC and HC/OCD groups scored significantly higher on measures of panic and agoraphobic cognitions. The groups also differed significantly for symptoms associated with compulsions. The patient groups were not different for measures of obsessions, depression, and anxiety. The results provide partial support for inclusion of HC in the spectrum of obsessive–compulsive disorders, but also provide indirect support for the association between HC and panic disorder. These results are interpreted in light of distinguishing characteristics among obsessive–compulsive spectrum conditions.