Financial Impacts of Foot‐and‐Mouth Disease at Village and National Levels in Lao PDR

To assist policies on Foot‐and‐Mouth Disease (FMD) control in Laos and the Mekong region, the financial impact of recent outbreaks at village and national levels was examined. Village‐level impacts were derived from recent research on financial losses due to FMD per smallholder household and number of households with FMD‐affected livestock in the village. National‐level impacts of FMD were determined from examination of 2011–2013 FMD reported to the Lao Department of Livestock and Fisheries (DLF), with the 2011 epidemic reported separately due to the large number and size of outbreaks of FMD in that year. Estimates of the national financial impact of FMD were based on (i) total FMD financial losses at the village level and (ii) the costs of FMD responses and other related costs at the DLF, provincial and district levels where FMD was reported, but excluding the costs of revenue forgone. A Monte Carlo simulation was utilized to account for likelihood of FMD over‐ and under‐reporting. Foot‐and‐mouth disease was recorded in four provinces of Phonsaly, Bokeo, Xayyabouli and Champasak in three consecutive years from 2011 to 2013. However, the FMD epidemic in 2011 was more widely distributed and involved 414 villages in 14 provinces, with thousands of cases of morbidity in cattle and buffalo and some mortalities. The estimated financial losses due to FMD in 2011 were USD 30 881(±23 176) at the village level and USD 13 512 291 at the national level based on the number of villages with FMD outbreaks reported. However, when the likelihood of FMD under‐reporting was accounted for, the estimated financial losses at the national level could potentially increase to USD 102 094 464 (±52 147 261), being almost 12% of the estimated farm gate value of the national large ruminant herd. These findings confirm that FMD causes substantial financial impacts in villages and to the national economy of Laos, providing justification for sustained investments in FMD control programmes.     

Foot‐and‐Mouth Disease Seroprevalence in Cattle in Eritrea

Information about seroprevalence of foot‐and‐mouth disease (FMD) and virus serotypes in Eritrea is unavailable, but is very important as it may guide the choice of intervention measures including vaccination to be implemented. We carried out a cross‐sectional study from February to June 2011 in Eritrea with a two‐stage cluster design, sampling cattle in 155 villages with the objective of determining the seroprevalence of FMD in four administrative regions of the country. We analysed cattle sera (n = 2429) for FMD virus antibodies using the non‐structural ELISA (NS ELISA) and virus neutralization test (VNT). The overall seroprevalence was 26% and 30% for the NS ELISA and VNT, respectively. FMD virus serotypes O (14%) and A (11%) were the most prevalent. Gash Barka showed the highest (39%) seroprevalence both in NS ELISA and VNT compared to the other three administrative regions. Strategic FMD virus vaccination with type O and A (matching circulating strains) in combination of zoo‐sanitary measures would be the best control option for Eritrea which could be started in areas where the disease is less endemic.     

Utilizing milk from pooling facilities as a novel approach for foot‐and‐mouth disease surveillance

This study investigated the potential of pooled milk as an alternative sample type for foot‐and‐mouth disease (FMD) surveillance. Real‐time RT‐PCR (rRT‐PCR) results of pooled milk samples collected weekly from five pooling facilities in Nakuru County, Kenya, were compared with half‐month reports of household‐level incidence of FMD. These periodic cross‐sectional surveys of smallholder farmers were powered to detect a threshold household‐level FMD incidence of 2.5% and collected information on trends in milk production and sales. FMD virus (FMDV) RNA was detected in 9/219 milk samples, and using a type‐specific rRT‐PCR, serotype SAT 1 was identified in 3/9 of these positive samples, concurrent with confirmed outbreaks in the study area. Four milk samples were FMDV RNA‐positive during the half‐months when at least one farmer reported FMD; that is, the household‐level clinical incidence was above a threshold of 2.5%. Additionally, some milk samples were FMDV RNA‐positive when there were no reports of FMD by farmers. These results indicate that the pooled milk surveillance system can detect FMD household‐level incidence at a 2.5% threshold when up to 26% of farmers contributed milk to pooling facilities, but perhaps even at lower levels of infection (i.e., below 2.5%), or when conventional disease reporting systems fail. Further studies are required to establish a more precise correlation with estimates of household‐level clinical incidence, to fully evaluate the reliability of this approach. However, this pilot study highlights the potential use of this non‐invasive, routinely collected, cost‐effective surveillance tool, to address some of the existing limitations of traditional surveillance methods.     

Foot‐and‐mouth disease virus transmission dynamics and persistence in a herd of vaccinated dairy cattle in India

Foot‐and‐mouth disease (FMD ) is an important transboundary disease with substantial economic impacts. Although between‐herd transmission of the disease has been well studied, studies focusing on within‐herd transmission using farm‐level outbreak data are rare. The aim of this study was to estimate parameters associated with within‐herd transmission, host physiological factors and FMD virus (FMDV ) persistence using data collected from an outbreak that occurred at a large, organized dairy farm in India. Of 1,836 regularly vaccinated, adult dairy cattle, 222 had clinical signs of FMD over a 39‐day period. Assuming homogenous mixing, a frequency‐dependent compartmental model of disease transmission was built. The transmission coefficient and basic reproductive number were estimated to be between 16.2–18.4 and 67–88, respectively. Non‐pregnant animals were more likely to manifest clinical signs of FMD as compared to pregnant cattle. Based on oropharyngeal fluid (probang) sampling and FMDV ‐specific RT ‐PCR , four of 36 longitudinally sampled animals (14%) were persistently infected carriers 10.5 months post‐outbreak. There was no statistical difference between subclinical and clinically infected animals in the duration of the carrier state. However, prevalence of NSP ‐ELISA antibodies differed significantly between subclinical and clinically infected animals 12 months after the outbreak with 83% seroprevalence amongst clinically infected cattle compared to 69% of subclinical animals. This study further elucidates within‐herd FMD transmission dynamics during the acute‐phase and characterizes duration of FMDV persistence and seroprevalence of FMD under natural conditions in an endemic setting.     

Limiting the Impacts of Foot and Mouth Disease in Large Ruminants in Northern Lao People’s Democratic Republic by Vaccination: A Case Study

Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is the most important global transboundary livestock disease and is endemic in Lao People’s Democratic Republic (Lao PDR) with outbreaks occurring regularly. Lao PDR shares borders with five countries and as a major thoroughfare for transboundary livestock movement, is vulnerable to the social and economic impacts of FMD. The FMD outbreak occurred in January 2009 in the Pek District, located in the north‐eastern Lao PDR province of Xieng Khuang and involved all 111 villages in that district. In March 2009, we conducted a case study on the impacts of FMD in four villages in Pek District. In two villages cattle and buffalo were vaccinated for FMD recently and prior to the outbreak as part of an ongoing research project. In one of these villages, all cattle and buffalo were vaccinated and just over half the large ruminant population was vaccinated in the other village. The other two villages involved in the case study were located nearby but not part of the ongoing research project and no animals had been vaccinated. Data were collected from the four villages by interviewing the village animal health worker in each village using a standard questionnaire. Morbidity rates for the fully vaccinated village were 1% and 7.9% for the partially vaccinated village and were much lower compared with the two adjacent, unvaccinated villages where morbidity rates were 61% and 74.3% respectively. Estimates of the financial losses incurred were USD 1.7–1.9 per cow or buffalo for the fully vaccinated village, USD 6.9–8.1 for the partly vaccinated village and 52.4–70.8 USD in the unvaccinated villages, providing evidence that a large opportunity cost is incurred by failing to vaccinate in areas where the risk of FMD incursions is high.     

Foot‐and‐Mouth Disease in Tanzania from 2001 to 2006

Foot‐and‐mouth disease (FMD) is endemic in Tanzania, with outbreaks occurring almost each year in different parts of the country. There is now a strong political desire to control animal diseases as part of national poverty alleviation strategies. However, FMD control requires improving the current knowledge on the disease dynamics and factors related to FMD occurrence so control measures can be implemented more efficiently. The objectives of this study were to describe the FMD dynamics in Tanzania from 2001 to 2006 and investigate the spatiotemporal patterns of transmission. Extraction maps, the space‐time K‐function and space‐time permutation models based on scan statistics were calculated for each year to evaluate the spatial distribution, the spatiotemporal interaction and the spatiotemporal clustering of FMD‐affected villages. From 2001 to 2006, 878 FMD outbreaks were reported in 605 different villages of 5815 populated places included in the database. The spatial distribution of FMD outbreaks was concentrated along the Tanzania‐Kenya, Tanzania‐Zambia borders, and the Kagera basin bordering Uganda, Rwanda and Tanzania. The spatiotemporal interaction among FMD‐affected villages was statistically significant (P ≤ 0.01) and 12 local spatiotemporal clusters were detected; however, the extent and intensity varied across the study period. Dividing the country in zones according to their epidemiological status will allow improving the control of FMD and delimiting potential FMD‐free areas.     

Epidemiological Study on Foot‐and‐Mouth Disease in Cattle: Seroprevalence and Risk Factor Assessment in South Omo Zone,South‐western Ethiopia

A cross‐sectional sero‐epidemiological study was conducted in seven districts of the South Omo zone, south‐western Ethiopia, between October 2008 and May 2009 with the objective of determining the seroprevalence of foot‐and‐mouth disease (FMD) in cattle and identifying the potential risk factors associated with the disease. In total, 770 cattle sera samples were collected and submitted to the National Veterinary Institute (NVI), Debre Zeit, Ethiopia, for screening using the 3ABC‐ELISA. The overall seroprevalence of 8.18% (n = 63) was recorded in the study. The highest district‐level prevalence was observed in Bennatsemay district (30.2%), and the lowest prevalence was in Malle and Debub Aari districts, each with prevalence of 6.3%. The difference in seropositivity of FMD in the studied districts was found to be statistically significant. From the various risk factors analysed, age of animal, contact history with wild animals, distance of the herd from parks and wild animals’ sanctuary and movement pattern of herds in search of pasture and water from area to area were found to be significantly associated (P < 0.05) with the seroprevalence of FMD. The results of this study showed that FMD is an important cattle disease in the study areas. Thus, an appropriate control strategy has to be designed and applied, which could involve regulation of transboundary cattle movement, prevention of contact with wildlife and vaccination against the circulating virus strain.     

Benefit‐Cost Analysis of Foot and Mouth Disease Control in Large Ruminants in Cambodia

Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is endemic in Cambodia and throughout the Greater Mekong Subregion and causes significant losses to rural smallholders owning the majority of the national large ruminant population. However, due to underreporting, paucity of knowledge of FMD impacts, limited veterinary capacity and deficits of data available for analysis, the quantifiable benefits of a national FMD control programme are unknown. To address this deficit, existing literature and research data from the ‘Best practice health and husbandry of cattle, Cambodia' project conducted between 2007 and 2012, were used to develop a three‐phase analysis framework to: assess the impacts of the recent widespread FMD epizootic in Cambodia in 2010, conduct a value chain analysis of the large ruminant market and estimate the costs and benefits for a national large ruminant biannual FMD vaccination programme. A trader survey conducted in 2010–2011 provided cattle and buffalo value chain information and was matched to village herd structure data to calculate a total large ruminant farm‐gate value of USD 1.271 billion in 2010. Monte Carlo simulation modelling that implemented a 5‐year biannual vaccination programme at a cost of USD 6.3 an animal per year identified a benefit‐cost ratio of 1.40 (95% CI 0.96–2.20) when accounting for recent prices of cattle and buffalo in Cambodia and based on an expected annual incidence of 0.2 (assuming one major epizootic in the 5‐year vaccination programme). Given that the majority of the large ruminants are owned by rural smallholders, and mostly the poor are involved in agricultural employment, the successful implementation of an FMD control programme in Cambodia would be expected to avoid estimated losses of USD 135 million; equivalent to 10.6% of the 2010 farm‐gate value and contributing to important reductions in rural poverty and food insecurity.     

Incidence and Distribution of Foot‐and‐Mouth Disease in Asia,Africa and South America; Combining Expert Opinion,Official Disease Information and Livestock Populations to Assist Risk Assessment

Risk assessment procedures frequently require quantitative data on the prevalence of the disease in question. Although most countries are members of the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE), the importance attached to foot‐and‐mouth disease (FMD) reporting or surveillance for infection varies enormously between infected countries. There is a general consensus that FMD outbreaks in endemic countries are greatly under‐reported, to a degree related either to the economic or the political development level of the country. This exploratory study was first undertaken by FAO, but thereafter extended and reviewed by the working group on FMD risk co‐ordinated by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). The paper attempts to overcome the lack of reporting through using expert opinion to extrapolate incidence indices from countries considered to have ‘representative’ levels of FMD. These were combined with livestock density distributions to provide maps of prevalence indices, which were found to be highest in China (pigs), India (cattle), the Near East (small ruminants) and the Sahel (small ruminants and cattle). Similar patterns were found when weighted expert rankings of a range of additional ranked disease parameters were also produced, and then combined with susceptible animal densities to produce a weighted multi‐species density. Results suggest that the methods can provide useful information at both national and sub‐national resolution, even for countries for which quantitative FMD data is currently unavailable: two of the regions identified provide little or no data on a regular basis to the OIE and therefore may be overlooked if the level of officially reported FMD is only used. As the estimated prevalences are based on recent disease history and expert opinion, they are most likely to be inaccurate where FMD incursions are infrequent as a result of the preventive measures and geographical and trade isolation. This study, therefore, highlights the need for specific detailed country risk assessments where livestock trade is under consideration. Validating the approach including ground truthing, will require collaboration between a number of agencies and institutions, in critical countries, particularly those with high disease burdens that share borders or trade livestock with currently FMD‐free nations.     

Farm Community Impacts of Foot‐and‐Mouth Disease Outbreaks in Cattle and Buffaloes in Karnataka State,India

This study was conducted to assess the impact of Foot‐and‐mouth Disease (FMD) outbreak in cattle and buffaloes on farming community in Kolar district, Karnataka state, India. Primary data were collected using pre‐tested schedule from 178 sample farms using multistage random cluster sample technique. The results revealed that 78% of surveyed villages were affected with FMD. The FMD incidence risk was high across the herd sizes, whereas the mortality risk was high in small herds. In indigenous cattle, the highest loss due to FMD was distress sale (208 USD) followed by other losses, whereas, in Crossbred cattle, the highest loss was mortality loss (515 USD) followed by distress sale (490 USD), milk yield loss (327 USD), treatment cost (38 USD) and extra labour engagement expenses for nursing of FMD‐affected bovines (30 USD). In local and upgraded buffaloes, the mean total loss per affected animal was 440 USD and 513 USD, respectively. A very high variability in the loss per animal was observed across the type of losses in the Crossbred cattle, and it may be due to differences in age of the FMD‐infected animal, value of the animal, milking stage, lactation levels, herd sizes and labour engagement levels, etc. In local and upgraded buffaloes, the mean total loss per animal was 639 USD and 1008 USD, respectively. The sensitivity analysis for 5% change in price revealed that the mean total loss per animal was positively correlated with price. Further, the social impact elicitation revealed that majority of the livestock owners perceived FMD had caused permanent asset loss, which in turn increased psychological stress of the family. The estimated losses and social impact due to FMD signify the importance of the intervention to control the disease and thus socio‐economic gain to the farmer and society at large.     

Antibodies Against Foot‐and‐mouth Disease (FMD) Virus in African Buffalos (Syncerus caffer) in Selected National Parks in Uganda (2001–2003)

In East Africa, the foot‐and‐mouth disease (FMD) virus (FMDV) isolates have over time included serotypes O, A, C, Southern African Territories (SAT) 1 and SAT 2, mainly from livestock. SAT 3 has only been isolated in a few cases and only in African buffalos (Syncerus caffer). To investigate the presence of antibodies against FMDV serotypes in wildlife in Uganda, serological studies were performed on buffalo serum samples collected between 2001 and 2003. Thirty‐eight samples from African buffalos collected from Lake Mburo, Kidepo Valley, Murchison Falls and Queen Elizabeth National Parks were screened using Ceditest^® FMDV NS to detect antibodies against FMDV non‐structural proteins (NSP). The seroprevalence of antibodies against non‐structural proteins was 74%. To characterize FMDV antibodies, samples were selected and titrated using serotype‐specific solid phase blocking enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISAs). High titres of antibodies (≥1 : 160) against FMDV serotypes SAT 1, SAT 2 and SAT 3 were identified. This study suggests that African buffalos in the different national parks in Uganda may play an important role in the epidemiology of SAT serotypes of FMDV.     

Spatio‐temporal patterns of foot‐and‐mouth disease transmission in cattle between 2007 and 2015 and quantitative assessment of the economic impact of the disease in Niger

Foot‐and‐mouth disease (FMD ) is endemic in Niger, with outbreaks occurring every year. Recently, there was an increasing interest from veterinary authorities to implement preventive and control measures against FMD . However, for an efficient control, improving the current knowledge on the disease dynamics and factors related to FMD occurrence is a prerequisite. The objective of this study was therefore to obtain insights into the incidence and the spatio‐temporal patterns of transmission of FMD outbreaks in Niger based on the retrospective analysis of 9‐year outbreak data. A regression tree analysis model was used to identify statistically significant predictors associated with FMD incidence, including the period (year and month), the location (region), the animal‐contact density and the animal‐contact frequency. This study provided also a first report on economic losses associated with FMD . From 2007 to 2015, 791 clinical FMD outbreaks were reported from the eight regions of Niger, with the number of outbreaks per region ranging from 5 to 309. The statistical analysis revealed that three regions (Dosso, Tillabery and Zinder), the months (September, corresponding to the end of rainy season, to December and January, i.e., during the dry and cold season), the years (2007 and 2015) and the density of contact were the main predictors of FMD occurrence. The quantitative assessment of the economic impacts showed that the average total cost of FMD at outbreak level was 499 euros, while the average price for FMD vaccination of one outbreak was estimated to be more than 314 euros. Despite some limitations of the clinical data used, this study will guide further research into the epidemiology of FMD in Niger and will promote a better understanding of the disease as well as an efficient control and prevention of FMD .     

Epidemiological Analysis,Serological Prevalence and Genotypic Analysis of Foot‐and‐Mouth Disease in Nigeria 2008–2009

The epidemiological situation of foot‐and‐mouth disease virus (FMDV) is uncertain in Nigeria, where the disease is endemic, and the majority of outbreaks are unreported. Control measures for FMD in Nigeria are not being implemented due to the absence of locally produced vaccines and an official ban on vaccine importation. This study summarizes the findings of a 3‐year study aimed at quantifying the seroprevalence of FMD, its distribution in susceptible species and the genetic diversity of FMDV isolated from the Plateau State of Nigeria. A 29% FMD prevalence was estimated using 3ABC enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assay (3ABC ELISA). Farms with suspected FMD nearby, with contact with wildlife, that used drugs or FMD vaccines or with >100 animals, and animals of large ruminant species and in pastures other than nomadic grazing were significantly (P < 0.05) associated with FMD. Antibodies against five FMDV serotypes, (A, O, SAT1, SAT2 and SAT3) were detected by the virus neutralization test (VNT) at various titres (<100–>800) from all tested sera from most parts of the region. This is probably the first report of the presence of FMDV SAT3 in Nigeria. Further studies to investigate the potential probable presence and prevalence of SAT 3 virus in Nigeria are required. Tissue samples collected from clinical animals were positive for FMDV. Virus isolates were sequenced and confirmed as serotype A. All of the isolates showed marked genetic homogeneity with >99% genetic identity in the VP1 region and were most closely related to a previously described virus collected from Cameroon in 2000. This study provides knowledge on the epidemiological situation of FMD in Plateau State, Nigeria, and will probably help to develop effective control and preventive strategies for the disease in Nigeria and other countries in the West African subregion.     

Socio‐economic impact of Foot‐and‐Mouth Disease outbreaks and control measures: An analysis of Mongolian outbreaks in 2017

Mongolia is a large landlocked country in Central Asia and has one of the highest per capita livestock ratios in the world. During 2017, reported foot‐and‐mouth disease (FMD) outbreaks in Mongolia increased considerably, prompting widespread disease control measures. This study estimates the socio‐economic impact of FMD and subsequent control measures on Mongolian herders. The analysis encompassed quantification of the impact on subsistence farmers’ livelihoods and food security and estimation of the national‐level gross losses due to reaction and expenditure during 2017. Data were collected from 112 herders across eight provinces that reported disease. Seventy of these herders had cases of FMD, while 42 did not have FMD in their animals but were within quarantine zones. Overall, 86/112 herders reported not drinking milk for a period of time and 38/112 reduced their meat consumption. Furthermore, 55 herders (49.1%) had to borrow money to buy food, medicines and/or pay bills or bank loans. Among herders with FMD cases, the median attack rate was 31.7%, 3.8% and 0.59% in cattle, sheep and goats, respectively, with important differences across provinces. Herders with clinical cases before the winter had higher odds of reporting a reduction in their meat consumption. National‐level gross losses due to FMD in 2017 were estimated using government data. The estimate of gross economic loss was 18.4 billion Mongolian‐tugriks (US$7.35 million) which equates to approximately 0.65% of the Mongolian GDP. The FMD outbreaks combined with current control measures have negatively impacted herders’ livelihoods (including herders with and without cases of FMD) which are likely to reduce stakeholder advocacy. Possible strategies that could be employed to ameliorate the negative effects of the current control policy were identified. The findings and approach are relevant to other FMD endemic regions aiming to control the disease.     

Epidemiology of Foot and Mouth Disease in Ethiopia: a Retrospective Analysis of District Level Outbreaks, 2007–2012

This study aimed at determining the incidence, distribution, risk factors, and causal serotypes of foot and mouth disease (FMD) outbreaks in Ethiopia based on 5 years of retrospective outbreak data (September 2007 until August 2012). District level outbreak data were collected from 115 randomly selected districts using a questionnaire administered to district animal health officers. The national incidence of FMD outbreaks during the study period was 1.45 outbreaks per five district years. Outbreaks were geographically widespread affecting all major regional states in the country and were more frequent in the central, southern, and southeastern parts of the country. Neither long‐term nor seasonal trends were observed in the incidence of outbreaks. A mixed effects logistic regression analysis revealed that the type of production system (market oriented system versus subsistence systems), presence of a major livestock market and/or route, and adjacency to a national parks or wildlife sanctuary were found to be associated with increased risk of outbreaks in the districts. FMD virus serotypes O, A, SAT 2, and SAT 1 were identified as the causal serotypes of the outbreaks during the study period. Whereas O was the dominant serotype, SAT 2 was the serotype that showed increase in relative frequency of occurrence. The estimated incidence of outbreaks is useful in assessing the economic impacts of the disease, and the identified risk factors provide important knowledge to target a progressive FMD control policy for Ethiopia.     

Current Status and Future Prospects to Achieve Foot‐and‐Mouth Disease Eradication in South America

South America has a favourable position with respect to foot‐and‐mouth disease (FMD) compared with other FMD‐affected regions due to the elimination of endemic clinical presentation of the disease. South America has reached the final stage of control and aims to eradicate the disease in the region under the provisions of the Hemispheric Program for the Eradication of FMD 2011–2020 (PHEFA). This programme aims at bringing eradication to completion, thereby eliminating the pool of foot‐and‐mouth disease genotypes active in South America. This plan includes a regional political agreement that provides strategies and technical guidelines for the eradication of foot‐and‐mouth disease from South America. It incorporates knowledge and experience regarding the disease's history and its connection with the different production systems, animal movement and trade. The Pan American Foot and Mouth Disease Center has led the control and eradication programmes, providing the framework for designing national and subregional programmes that have led to significant progress in controlling the disease in South America. The current situation is the result of several factors, including the proper implementation of a national control programmes, good veterinary infrastructure in most countries and public–private participation in the process of eradicating the disease. Notwithstanding the favourable health status, there are significant challenges for the goal of eradication. At this stage, South American countries should enhance their surveillance strategies particularly through the use of target or risk‐based surveys that contribute to increase the degree of sensitivity in the search for viral circulation in the context of absence of clinical occurrence of FMD.     

Investigation of Foot and Mouth Disease hotspots in northern Lao PDR

Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is an endemic transboundary disease in the Mekong region, and FMD records of reports to animal health authorities in Lao PDR between 2009 and 2011 were reviewed. FMD outbreaks occurred in 2 of 3 years in eight districts in three of the eight northern Lao PDR provinces, locations suggested as FMD ‘hotspots’. The relatively higher risk of recurrence of FMD in these districts was likely due to the presence of a dense large ruminant population, extensive animal trading including transboundary movements and ineffective animal movement controls. As an understanding of the epidemiology of FMD in these ‘hotspots’ may offer insights into improved FMD control in the region, a study of an outbreak of FMD occurring in early 2010 following failure to vaccinate was conducted in the endemic ‘hotspot’ area of Paek district in Xiengkhoung province where in early 2009, a major outbreak of FMD in the district had been prevented in two villages by vaccination. The 2010 outbreak included collection of tissue samples 1 week after the onset of FMD that confirmed infection with FMD virus serotype O (Myanmar topotype) in a population of 239 large ruminants, comprising 167 cattle and 72 buffalo. A survey by interview of 30 farmers conducted in July 2010 documented high morbidity in cattle and buffalo (>90%) and identified disease risk factors, including increased trading of animals at the end of the rice harvest, plus several failures of biosecurity. In late 2010 and early 2011, a total of 40 and 72 serum samples were collected from large ruminants prior to and post‐FMD vaccination respectively and tested by LPB‐ELISA. Antibodies were present in the pre‐vaccination samples attributable to previous exposure to FMD virus and significantly rising post‐vaccination titres indicated likely temporary protection against future FMDV infection. It was concluded that to provide sufficient control of FMD in this ‘hotspot’, regular vaccination, particularly prior to the peak risk period in December‐February, plus improved farmer knowledge of disease transmission risk and biosecurity, is required. Although low rural education standards and language barriers because of multiple ethnic groups pose a challenge for the successful delivery of extension programmes in northern Lao PDR, training to improve disease recognition and reporting plus village‐level biosecurity practices is considered important in FMD ‘hotspots’ if sustainable regional initiatives directed at FMD control are to be achieved.     

Risk Factors for Foot‐and‐Mouth Disease in Tanzania, 2001–2006

We developed a model to quantify the effect of factors influencing the spatio‐temporal distribution of foot‐and‐mouth disease (FMD) in Tanzania. The land area of Tanzania was divided into a regular grid of 20 km × 20 km cells and separate grids constructed for each of the 12‐month periods between 2001 and 2006. For each year, a cell was classified as either FMD positive or negative dependent on an outbreak being recorded in any settlement within the cell boundaries. A Bayesian mixed‐effects spatial model was developed to assess the association between the risk of FMD occurrence and distance to main roads, railway lines, wildlife parks, international borders and cattle density. Increases in the distance to main roads decreased the risk of FMD every year from 2001 to 2006 (ORs ranged from 0.43 to 0.97). Increases in the distance to railway lines and international borders were, in general, associated with a decreased risk of FMD (ORs ranged from 0.85 to 0.99). Increases in the distance from a national park decreased the risk of FMD in 2001 (OR 0.80; 95% CI 0.68–0.93) but had the opposite effect in 2004 (OR 1.06; 95% CI 1.01–1.12). Cattle population density was, in general, positively associated with the risk of FMD (ORs ranged from 1.01 to 1.30). The spatial distribution of high‐risk areas was variable and corresponded to endemic (2001, 2002 and 2005) and epidemic (2003, 2004 and 2006) phases. Roads played a dominant role in both epidemiological situations; we hypothesize that roads are the main driver of FMD expansion in Tanzania. Our results suggest that FMD occurrence in Tanzania is more related to animal movement and human activity via communication networks than transboundary movements or contact with wildlife.