The Language of Intoxication: Preliminary Investigations

Background:  The extensive vocabulary individuals use to describe alcohol's subjective effects has largely gone unexamined in contemporary alcohol research. The present study examined the language drinkers use to describe their own intoxication. It is argued that this language can provide a more complete characterization of alcohol's subjective effects than is available from existing objective and subjective measures of alcohol use and can inform future self-report research.
Method:  Toward this goal, a preliminary, cross-sectional, web-based study of the familiarity and usage of current intoxication-related words was conducted in 2 different samples ( n  = 290 and 146, respectively) of university undergraduates.
Results:  Exploratory factor analyses using data from the first sample and confirmatory factor analyses using data from the second sample similarly showed that commonly used terms loaded onto 2 factors, which directly reflected the number of drinks required to be considered moderately or heavily intoxicated, respectively. Gender differences were also found in the familiarity and self-use of some terms across both samples.
Conclusions:  The findings suggest that alcohol researchers include multiple intoxication-related terms in future self-report research, and to periodically assess current intoxication-related vocabulary considering demographic, generational, and socio-cultural differences.     

Expanding the Utility of the Biphasic Alcohol Effects Scale (BAES) and Initial Psychometric Support for the Brief-BAES (B-BAES)

Background:  The utility of one of the most widely used subjective alcohol assessment tools, the Biphasic Alcohol Effects Scale (BAES) has been somewhat limited based on lack of psychometric studies in large and diverse samples, a range of alcohol doses, the length of the measure, and the original instructional set which precluded baseline measurement and disclosed to subjects that they received alcohol.
Methods:  The current study investigated the factor structure of the BAES with a modified instructional set at pre-drink baseline and after consumption of various doses of alcohol, in a sample of 190 men and women, heavy and light social drinkers. This study tested the psychometric properties of a brief version of the BAES (Brief-BAES or B-BAES).
Results:  Results demonstrated robust support of the stimulant and sedative constructs across all conditions, and demonstrated strong psychometric support for the 6-item B-BAES.
Discussion:  This is the first comprehensive study to expand the utility of the BAES by instructional set, baseline measurement, at various alcohol doses, and by drinking history and sex. In addition, the introduction of the B-BAES may further increase the utility of this scale, particularly in paradigms with repeated measurement or time constraints.     

Effects of aripiprazole on subjective and physiological responses to alcohol

Background:  Aripiprazole is an atypical antipsychotic with partial agonist activity at D₂ receptors, which could reduce the reinforcing effects of alcohol. The present study examined whether aripiprazole modifies the behavioral and physiological effects of a moderate dose of alcohol in a group of social drinkers.
Methods:  Eighteen healthy subjects (9 men; mean age = 27.6 years) completed a double-blind, within-subject study with 3 experimental sessions in a randomized sequence, during which they received no medication, aripiprazole 2.5 mg, or aripiprazole 10 mg on the day prior to the laboratory session. During the session, subjects consumed alcohol that was served as three standardized drinks (i.e., a total of 0.8 g/kg for men and 0.7 g/kg for women). Breath alcohol concentration (BrAC), heart rate, blood pressure, static ataxia, and subjective effects were measured regularly throughout the laboratory sessions.
Results:  Alcohol consumption produced physiological and subjective responses that were consistent with the literature on its effects. Pre-treatment with aripiprazole was generally well tolerated, with tiredness being the most commonly reported adverse event. The medication was associated with modest physiological effects. It also significantly and dose-dependently increased the sedative effects of alcohol and, to a lesser degree, decreased the euphoric effects of alcohol.
Conclusions:  These findings require replication in a larger subject sample that includes heavy drinkers and in a study that employs a placebo session. Based on its capacity to increase the sedative effects and decrease the euphoric effects of alcohol, aripiprazole could be of value in the treatment of heavy drinking.     

Effects of alcohol on simulated driving and perceived driving impairment in binge drinkers

Background:  Binge drinking (heavy episodic alcohol use) is associated with high rates of impaired driving and myriad alcohol-related accidents. However, the underlying reasons for the heightened accident risk in this demographic group are not known. This research examined acute alcohol effects on simulated driving performance and subjective ratings of intoxication and driving ability in binge and nonbinge drinkers.
Methods:  Young social drinking college students (24 binge drinkers and 16 nonbinge drinkers) participated in this study. Participants attended a session during which they received a moderate dose of alcohol (0.65 g/kg) and a session during which they received a placebo. A simulated driving task measured participants' driving performance in response to each dose. Subjective responses to each dose were also assessed, including ratings of sedation, stimulation, and driving ability.
Results:  The acute dose of alcohol impaired multiple aspects of driving performance in both binge and nonbinge drinkers. Under alcohol, all participants had greater difficulty in maintaining their lane position, maintaining the appropriate speed and made multiple driving errors compared to placebo performance. By contrast, compared with nonbinge drinkers, binge drinkers reported feeling less sedated by the alcohol and reported having a greater ability to drive following the acute dose of alcohol.
Conclusions:  Reduced subjective intoxication and perceived driving impairment in binge drinkers may account for the greater accident risk in this demographic group. Binge drinkers may lack the internal sedation cue that helps them accurately assess that they are not able to effectively drive a vehicle after drinking.     

Behavioral Effects and Pharmacokinetics of Low-Dose Intravenous Alcohol in Humans

Alcohol has physiological effects on the human central nervous system at blood alcohol concentrations (BACs) as low as 9 mg/dl. It is unknown, however, if humans can perceive the effects of such low doses of alcohol. Furthermore, low BACs can be difficult to measure. The purpose of this experiment was to: (1) assess the ability of humans to perceive subjective effects of low BACs; (2) measure behavioral effects of low BACs on a psychomotor performance task; and (3) test the sensitivity and accuracy of the transdermal alcohol sensor (TAS) for measuring low BACs from skin. Five men and seven women were administered single-blind intravenous infusions of ethyl alcohol in 5% dextrose/water to achieve peak BACs of 0,10,20, and 40 mg/dl. Subjective intoxication scales and a computer administered continuous performance task (CPT) were used to assess alcohol effects. BACs were estimated from skin, blood, and breath. The only alcohol-induced sensation significantly increased during the alcohol infusions was anesthesia measured by the Alcohol Sensation Scale on the descending limb of the BAC curve. The subjective positive-reinforcing stimulant and mood effects of alcohol were not reported until subjects were administered the 40 mg/dl alcohol infusion. Other measures of subjective intoxication and sedation, and the CPT were unaffected by the alcohol infusions. The TAS provided a noninvasive method for estimating BACs that was comparable with estimates obtained from blood and breath, although delayed in time.     

Factor Structure and Concurrent Validity of the Obsessive Compulsive Drinking Scale in a Group of Alcohol-Dependent Subjects of Mexico City

Background:  Obsessive thoughts and compulsive drinking behaviors have been proposed as key factors associated with the loss of control over alcohol consumption experienced by alcohol-dependent patients. The self-report 14-item Obsessive Compulsive Drinking Scale (OCDS; Anton et al., 1995 ) was designed in order to rate these features.
Methods:  A Spanish-translated version of the OCDS was applied to a group of 159 alcohol-dependent subjects while in abstinence, and data were analyzed in order to evaluate the factor structure and concurrent validity of the scale.
Results:  Several solutions were explored after applying the principal factor analysis to the data. The most plausible result was obtained after excluding the items on quantity and frequency of drinking. This model explaining 56.9% of the variance included 2 factors: obsessive thoughts related to drinking and interference/behaviors related to drinking. Additionally, OCDS scores were significantly correlated with measures for the Alcohol Dependence Scale, number of DSM-IV criteria met for alcohol dependence as well as the number of days in a week engaged in heavy drinking, indicating concurrent validity.
Conclusions:  Our results support the use of OCDS as a valid self-rated instrument that can be broadly applied in research and treatment settings. However, its current version includes questions that may not represent the core concept of craving. The abridged 12-item version of the scale (excluding the items on drinking habits) maintains good psychometrics features and seems to be adequate when different cognitive and behavioral dimensions are explored.     

Predictors and outcomes of variability in subjective alcohol intoxication among college students: an event-level analysis across 4 years

Background: Individual differences in subjective alcohol intoxication, as measured by laboratory‐based alcohol challenge, have been identified as a phenotypic risk factor for alcohol use disorders. Further, recent evidence indicates that subjective alcohol response is also associated with event‐level physiological consequences among college students, including blackouts and hangovers. Methods: The current investigation tested predictors of and outcomes associated with subjective intoxication in the natural drinking environment. In a preliminary laboratory alcohol‐challenge study (n = 53), we developed a brief measure of subjective alcohol intoxication for use in event‐level research. Participating students in the principal study (n = 1,867; 63% women; 54% Caucasian) completed 30 days of Web‐based self‐monitoring in each of the 4 college years. Results: In the principal study, generalized estimating equation analyses revealed that both lighter drinking and a family history of alcohol problems predicted greater subjective intoxication after accounting for estimated blood alcohol concentration (eBAC). Moreover, greater subjective intoxication during a given drinking episode was associated with negative alcohol‐related consequences, illicit drug use, and unsafe sex, and at higher eBACs, was associated with aggression, sex, and property crime. Students who on average experienced greater subjective intoxication were also more likely to experience negative consequences and engage in illicit drug use, sex, unsafe sex, and aggression. Conclusions: These findings suggest that both within‐person variability and between‐person individual differences in subjective intoxication may be risk factors for adverse drinking outcomes at the event level. Intervention efforts aimed at reducing problems associated with collegiate drinking may benefit from consideration both of who experiences greater subjective intoxication and of the situations in which they are more likely to do so.     

Self-reported subjective perception of intoxication reflects family history of alcoholism when breath alcohol levels are constant

BACKGROUND: The premise of this study is that the increased familial risk for alcoholism is associated with genetic determinants of the response to alcohol, characterized by sensitivity and adaptation. Following a single administration, sensitivity is the initial response to alcohol, expressed as the change in dependent measures from baseline. Adaptation of dependent measures within a single exposure to alcohol can be expressed as acute tolerance (recovery of dependent measures toward baseline values) or sensitization (movement of dependent measure further away from baseline values). This study tested the hypothesis that family history-positive (FHP) subjects are more sensitive and more adaptive to alcohol compared with family history-negative (FHN) subjects. METHODS: The initial response and development of adaptation to alcohol were assessed by using self-reported subjective perceptions during a breath alcohol concentration (BrAC) clamp of 60 mg%. The Biphasic Alcohol Effects Scale, the Sensation Scale and a visual analog scale of intoxication were acquired at baseline, after the BrAC clamp was established, and after maintenance of the clamp for 105 min. RESULTS: FHP subjects were more sensitive to alcohol compared with FHNs, as evidenced by greater changes in feelings of intoxication when the BrAC clamp was initially achieved. While the clamp was maintained, the FHP subjects adapted to the effects of alcohol and their perceptions of intoxication became indistinguishable from those of the FHN subjects. The FHP subjects had developed acute tolerance to alcohol, whereas the FHN subjects did not. Other self-reported perceptions of alcohol's effects did not distinguish between the groups. CONCLUSIONS: A differential family history of alcoholism was reflected in self-reported subjective perceptions of intoxication when the brain's exposure to a specified concentration of alcohol was held constant (BrAC of 60 mg%). FHP subjects reported greater intoxication after alcohol and subsequently developed acute tolerance to alcohol compared with FHN subjects.     

Effects of topiramate on urge to drink and the subjective effects of alcohol: a preliminary laboratory study

Background:  Topiramate was recently reported to be efficacious in reducing drinking rates and craving among individuals with alcohol dependence in a randomized controlled trial, but dose effects could not be determined. This laboratory study systematically examined the dose-dependent effects of topiramate on cue-elicited craving and other putative mechanisms of its pharmacotherapeutic effects on drinking.
Methods:  Male and female heavy drinkers ( n  = 61) were randomized to 1 of 3 medication conditions (200 mg/d; 300 mg/d; placebo) in a double-blind study. Participants reached the target dose after a 32-day titration period, then were stabilized for approximately 1 week. All then participated in a laboratory assessment of alcohol cue reactivity and of the subjective effects of a moderate dose of alcohol.
Results:  Both doses of topiramate reduced the frequency of heavy drinking during the titration period as compared to placebo. However, topiramate did not affect self-reported craving for alcohol during the titration period, during the cue reactivity protocol, or in response to the alcohol challenge procedure. Topiramate reduced the stimulating effects of alcohol ingestion compared to placebo, but only in the 200 mg group.
Conclusions:  The results of this study support previous findings that topiramate reduces drinking, but the behavioral mechanism underlying this effect does not appear to be attenuation of craving for alcohol as measured using the approaches employed in this study. Rather, the results tentatively suggest that topiramate may exert its beneficial effects by altering the subjective experiences of alcohol consumption. Limitations of the current study are discussed and complementary methods are recommended for future studies, such as the use of behavioral economic paradigms and ecological momentary assessment.     

Subjective intoxication in response to alcohol challenge: heritability and covariation with personality,breath alcohol level,and drinking history

BACKGROUND: Numerous studies have identified differences in subjective response to alcohol in subjects differentiated by family history of alcoholism. Results suggest that genetic influences on individual variation in subjective response to alcohol may be a mechanism for genetic effects on alcohol problems. However, direct evidence for genetic effects on subjective response to alcohol is very limited. METHODS: In a sample of 99 adult twin pairs, we studied genetic influences on subjective intoxication after alcohol challenge. The twins ingested a standard dose of ethanol (0.70 g/kg for men/0.65 g/kg for women), and two measures of subjective response to alcohol were assessed. RESULTS: Genetic effects on variation in subjective intoxication reported 1 hr after drinking were significant and substantial: heritability was 0.60 for a 22-item scale and 0.48 for a brief 2-item measure. Self-report measures of neuroticism, psychasthenia, hostility, and family problems shared significant genetic covariation with subjective intoxication. Achieved breath alcohol level, rate of change in breath alcohol on the descending limb, and individual drinking history all shared familial variation with subjective intoxication. No significant genetic effects for subjective intoxication were found 2 hr after drinking, but familial influences remained present, and many of the same personality, drinking history, and breath alcohol variables were predictive of intoxication. CONCLUSIONS: Subjective response to alcohol is heritable, and genetic effects on subjective intoxication are partly shared with genetic effects on personality.     

The role of behavioral impulsivity in the development of alcohol dependence: a 4-year follow-up study

Background:  Although many studies have established a close relation between impulsivity and alcohol use disorders, little is known about the role of behavioral impulsivity in the development of these disorders.
Objectives:  To determine the role of 2 laboratory paradigms of impulsivity in the development of alcohol use disorders.
Methods:  Follow-up study carried out with 471 participants diagnosed as heavy drinkers (HD) and followed-up for 4 years. Initially, they were compared with a healthy control group. Assessment of behavioral impulsivity was carried out with the Continuous Performance Test (CPT), and the Stop-Signal Task (SST) assessed behavioral inhibitory control. Differential reinforcement for low-rate responding (DRLR) was used to evaluate the delay reward dimension. The Structured Clinical Interview (SCID-DSM-IV) was used to diagnose alcohol dependence.
Results:  The HD performed worse than the control group in all the behavioral tests of impulsivity. Performance in DRLR was the only behavioral impulsivity test that classified the HD correctly compared to controls. Logistic regression analysis indicated that performance on SST was a significant predictor [odds = 1.52(CI = 1.08–2.31)] of developing alcohol dependence.
Conclusions:  Our results support the relation between behavioral impulsivity and alcohol use disorders. The paradigm related to delay of reward may be a factor associated with the use of alcohol and the incapacity to control inhibition as dependence develops.     

Effects of Assessment Frequency on Subjective Intoxication Ratings After Alcohol Consumption

BACKGROUND: It is common for subjective intoxication measures to be administered frequently throughout an experimental session. It is unclear, however, whether repeated assessments affect the experience of intoxication. This study examined the effect of assessing subjective intoxication levels during alcohol consumption on subsequent perceptions of intoxication after drinking. METHODS: Forty-two participants consumed a moderate dose of alcohol (men, 82 g/kg; women, 0.74 g/kg) during a 30-min period. Participants either reported or did not report subjective intoxication levels at 10-min intervals during the drinking period. After the drink, all participants rated their level of subjective intoxication on several occasions. RESULTS: Individuals who reported their intoxication during the drinking period reported higher levels after consumption than did those who did not rate their intoxication during drinking. CONCLUSIONS: These data suggest the potential for reactivity effects when conducting repeated assessments of perceived subjective intoxication.     

Specific reduction of alcohol's motivational properties by the positive allosteric modulator of the GABAB receptor, GS39783--comparison with the effect of the GABAB receptor direct agonist, baclofen

Background:  Activation of the GABA_B receptor—either by means of direct agonists (like baclofen) or positive allosteric modulators (like GS39783)—has been observed to suppress alcohol drinking and reinforcement in rats and mice. The present study was conducted to assess and compare the effect of baclofen and GS39783 on the motivational properties of alcohol.
Methods:  Selectively bred Sardinian alcohol-preferring (sP) rats were initially trained to respond on a lever (on an fixed ratio 4 schedule of reinforcement) to orally self-administer alcohol (15%, v/v) or sucrose (3%, w/v) in daily 30-minute sessions. Once lever-responding reached stable levels, rats were exposed to sessions with a progressive ratio schedule of reinforcement. The effect of nonsedative doses of baclofen (0, 1, and 3 mg/kg, i.p.) and GS39783 (0, 25, 50, and 100 mg/kg, i.g.) on breakpoint for alcohol and sucrose (defined as the lowest response requirement not achieved by each rat and used as index of the motivational strength of alcohol and sucrose) was determined.
Results:  Baclofen administration resulted in a dose-dependent decrease in breakpoint for alcohol; this effect was not specific, as baclofen also reduced—to a comparable extent—breakpoint for sucrose. Conversely, GS39783 administration resulted in a dose-dependent and completely specific reduction in breakpoint for alcohol.
Conclusions:  The present results (i) confirm previous data on baclofen's capacity to suppress, although nonspecifically, alcohol's motivational properties, and (ii) extend to alcohol's motivational properties the capacity of GS39783 to inhibit alcohol drinking and reinforcement in rats.     

When What You See Isn't What You Get: Alcohol Cues, Alcohol Administration, Prediction Error, and Human Striatal Dopamine

Background:  The mesolimbic dopamine (DA) system is implicated in the development and maintenance of alcohol drinking; however, the exact mechanisms by which DA regulates human alcohol consumption are unclear. This study assessed the distinct effects of alcohol-related cues and alcohol administration on striatal DA release in healthy humans.
Methods:  Subjects underwent 3 PET scans with [¹¹C]raclopride (RAC). Subjects were informed that they would receive either an IV Ringer's lactate infusion or an alcohol (EtOH) infusion during scanning, with naturalistic visual and olfactory cues indicating which infusion would occur. Scans were acquired in the following sequence: (1) Baseline Scan: Neutral cues predicting a Ringer's lactate infusion, (2) CUES Scan: Alcohol-related cues predicting alcohol infusion in a Ringer's lactate solution, but with alcohol infusion after scanning to isolate the effects of cues, and (3) EtOH Scan: Neutral cues predicting Ringer's, but with alcohol infusion during scanning (to isolate the effects of alcohol without confounding expectation or craving).
Results:  Relative to baseline, striatal DA concentration decreased during CUES, but increased during EtOH.
Conclusion:  While the results appear inconsistent with some animal experiments showing dopaminergic responses to alcohol's conditioned cues, they can be understood in the context of the hypothesized role of the striatum in reward prediction error, and of animal studies showing that midbrain dopamine neurons decrease and increase firing rates during negative and positive prediction errors, respectively. We believe that our data are the first in humans to demonstrate such changes in striatal DA during reward prediction error.     

Acute Interaction of Baclofen in Combination With Alcohol in Heavy Social Drinkers

Background:  There is growing evidence that gamma-amino butyric acid-B receptor agonists may be effective in the treatment of alcohol abuse or dependence. The primary goal of this study was to determine the safety of baclofen in combination with alcohol consumption in heavy drinkers. In addition, the effects of baclofen alone, and in combination with alcohol, on subjective effects, cognitive performance effects, as well as alcohol craving, were assessed.
Methods:  Eighteen non-treatment-seeking heavy social drinkers (mean of 28 drinks per week), who did not meet the criteria for alcohol dependence participated. All individuals were tested using a double-blind double-dummy design with six 2-day inpatient phases. Baclofen (0, 40, and 80 mg) was administered 2.5 hours before alcohol (1.5 g/l body water or approximately 0.75 g/kg) or placebo beverages, given in 4 divided doses every 20 minutes.
Results:  Baclofen, either alone or in combination with alcohol, produced only modest increases in heart rate and blood pressure and no adverse effects were reported. Baclofen did not increase positive subjective effects (e.g., Stimulant effects, Drug Liking) but did increase sedation and impair performance. Even though both baclofen and alcohol impaired performance, for the most part performance was not impaired to a greater extent when baclofen was combined with alcohol. Among this population of nondependent drinkers, baclofen did not alter alcohol craving or alcohol-induced positive subjective effects.
Conclusions:  Baclofen alone has minimal abuse liability in heavy social drinkers, and baclofen is relatively well tolerated and safe when given in combination with intoxicating doses of alcohol.     

Subjective Response to Alcohol: A Critical Review of the Literature

Background: Subjective response to alcohol (SR), which reflects individual differences in sensitivity to the pharmacological effects of alcohol, may be an important endophenotype in understanding genetic influences on drinking behavior and alcohol use disorders (AUDs). SR predicts alcohol use and problems and has been found to differ by a range of established risk factors for the development of AUDs (e.g., family history of alcoholism). The exact pattern of SR associated with increased risk for alcohol problems, however, remains unclear. The Low Level of Response Model (LLR) suggests that high‐risk individuals experience decreased sensitivity to the full range of alcohol effects, while the Differentiator Model (DM) asserts that high risks status is associated with increased sensitivity to alcohol's positive effects but decreased sensitivity to negative effects. Aims: The current paper (1) reviews two prominent models of subjective response, (2) reviews extant laboratory‐based research on subjective response, (3) highlights remaining gaps in our understanding and assessment of subjective response, and (4) encourages collaborative efforts to address these methodological and conceptual concerns. Methods: This paper reviews studies which employed placebo‐controlled and non‐placebo‐controlled alcohol challenge paradigms to assess a range of alcohol effects including impairment, stimulation, and sedation. Results: The research literature provides at least partial support for both the LLR and DM models. High‐risk individuals have been shown to have a reduced response to alcohol with respect to sedative or impairing effects, particularly on the descending limb of the blood alcohol curve (BAC). There is also evidence that ascending limb stimulant effects are more pronounced or operate differently for high‐risk individuals. Discussion: Despite commendable advances in SR research, important questions remain unanswered. Inconsistent results across studies may be attributable to a combination of an inadequate understanding of the underlying construct and methodological differences across studies (e.g., number and timing of assessments across the BAC, inclusion of a placebo condition). With respect to the underlying construct, existing measures fail to adequately distinguish between cognitive/behavioral impairment and sedation, aspects of which may be perceived positively (e.g., anxiolysis) due to their ability to act as negative reinforcers. Conclusions: Addressing the concerns raised by the current review will be integral to making meaningful scientific progress in the field of subjective response.     

Effects of Acute Alcohol Intoxication and Paroxetine on Aggression in Men

Background:  The purpose of this study was to examine the role of the serotonin (5-HT) system in alcohol-related aggression.
Methods:  Specifically, we experimentally examined the effects of 5-HT augmentation on alcohol-related aggression in men ( n  =   56). After consuming either alcohol (mean blood alcohol concentration of 0.10%) or a placebo (no alcohol) drink, and taking either 20 mg of paroxetine (Paxil®) or a placebo pill, participants were provided the opportunity to administer electric shock to a (faux) opponent during a task disguised as a reaction-time game. Aggression was defined as the intensity of shock chosen and the frequency with which an extreme (clearly painful) shock was chosen. We predicted that 5-HT augmentation would be associated with lower aggressive behavior overall, and also reduce the aggression facilitating effects of acute alcohol intoxication.
Results:  The results indicated that alcohol intoxication increased aggression, particularly under low provocation. Paroxetine decreased aggression, particularly during high provocation. These effects, however, occurred independently of each other.
Conclusions:  The effect of alcohol on extreme aggression was moderated by previous aggression history, with more aggressive individuals showing greater alcohol-related increases in extreme aggression.     

The role of personality dispositions to risky behavior in predicting first-year college drinking

Aims   US college student drinking is associated with enormous risks to health, safety and productivity. Recent advances in personality research that have delineated multiple, separate dispositions to engage in risky behaviors may help to clarify the personality contribution to risk for this problem.
Design   The authors compared the prospective roles of sensation seeking, lack of planning, lack of perseverance, negative urgency and positive urgency (dispositions to engage in rash action when in an unusually negative or positive mood, respectively) in predicting increases in drinking frequency, drinking quantity and negative outcomes from consumption across the first year of college.
Setting   University of Kentucky campus.
Participants   A total of 418 first-year US college students enrolled in an Introduction to Psychology course during the first assessment; 293 participants completed both phases of the study.
Measurements   Participants completed self-report measures of personality and drinking behavior twice during the first year of college [the UPPS-R Impulsive Behavior Scale, positive urgency measure (PUM) and Drinking Styles Questionnaire (DSQ)].
Findings   Whereas sensation seeking related to increases in the frequency with which college students drank alcohol, positive urgency predicted increases in (i) the quantity of alcohol students consumed at any given drinking episode and (ii) negative outcomes experienced from drinking.
Conclusions   It appears that although sensation seeking is a risk factor for participation in drinking behaviors, risk for increased quantity of consumption and its negative outcomes may be more a function of dyscontrol stemming from high positive mood for college students.     

Does sports participation during adolescence prevent later alcohol,tobacco and cannabis use?

Aims   To study whether participation in organized sports during adolescence predicts increased smoking of tobacco, alcohol intoxication and cannabis use from late adolescence to adulthood when controlling for potential confounders. Moreover, to study whether such increased drug use varies according to type of sport (team versus individual), main skills needed (endurance, strength or technical) and level of competition.
Design, setting and participants   Survey of national sample of Norwegian high school students (aged 13–19 years) in 1992 (T1) followed-up in 1994 (T2), 1999 (T3) and 2006 (T4) ( n  = 3251).
Measurements   Outcome measures included smoking of tobacco and 12-month prevalences of alcohol intoxication and cannabis use, respectively. Confounders included pubertal timing, friends' drug use, perceived social acceptance, grades and parental socio-economic status.
Findings   Latent growth curve analyses showed that initial level of participation in organized sports predicted growth in alcohol intoxication. Those involved initially in team sports had greater growth in alcohol intoxication, but lower growth in tobacco use and cannabis use, during the adolescent and early adult years compared to those involved in technical or strength sports. Practising endurance sports, as opposed to technical or strength sports, predicted reduced growth in alcohol intoxication and tobacco use.
Conclusions   Sports participation in adolescence, and participation in team sports in particular, may increase the growth in alcohol intoxication during late adolescent and early adult years, whereas participation in team sports and endurance sports may reduce later increase in tobacco and cannabis use.     

Dissociation of alcohol-seeking and consumption under a chained schedule of oral alcohol reinforcement in baboons

Background:  Initiation and maintenance of compulsive alcohol drinking involves a sequence of behaviors which occur in the presence of environmental cues. Animal models using chained schedules of alcohol reinforcement may be useful for examining the complex interactions between cues and alcohol-seeking and -consumption.
Methods:  Four baboons self-administered alcohol under a 3-component chained schedule of reinforcement; distinct cues were presented in the context of different behavioral contingencies associated with gaining access to 4% w/v alcohol (alcohol-seeking) and concluding with alcohol self-administration. First, the response strength of alcohol-related seeking responses was evaluated using a between-sessions progressive ratio (PR) procedure in which the response requirement to initiate the final contingency and gain access to the daily supply of alcohol was increased each session. The highest response requirement completed that resulted in alcohol access was defined as the breaking point (BP). Second, water was substituted for alcohol and PR procedures were repeated. The effects of increasing the "seeking" response requirement on subsequent alcohol or water consumption were also determined.
Results:  When alcohol was available, operant responses to gain access to and self-administer alcohol were maintained. When water was substituted for alcohol, alcohol-related cues continued to maintain alcohol-seeking responses. However, higher BPs, higher rates of self-administration and higher volumes of intake occurred when alcohol was available compared with water. Increasing the response requirement to gain access to alcohol did not reduce alcohol consumption (total alcohol intake).
Conclusions:  These results show that alcohol-related cues maintained alcohol-seeking even after a prolonged period of only water availability. Cue-maintained alcohol-seeking behavior can be dissociated from subsequent alcohol consumption.